■ ■ 



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I 



iP $8 
■ ■ 



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Class c^> to £ Z> 

Book^_bll5_ 



>6th Congress, \ SENATE. 

1st Session. J 



REPORT 



OF THE 



PHILIPPINE COMMISSION 



TO 



THE PRESIDENT 



VOL. III. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
19 01. 




I 



56th Congress, { SENATE. j Document 

1st Session. j "j No. 138. 



REPORT 



OF THE 



PHILIPPINE COMMISSION 



TO 



THE PRESIDENT. 



VOL. III. 






IHWRV OF C0NGRE88, 

*£C£tVE» 

SEP 3 01901 

DIVISION OF §0CUMENTS. 

WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1901. 



/ y 






SEP 30 1901 
D. of D. 



) - 



I 



i 



1 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Paper I. — Chorography .' 8 

II.— Orography _. 129 

III. — Hydrography... ._ . . 153 

Part first — Marine Hydrography 157 

Part second — Terrestrial Hydrography. 201 

IV. — Mineral Resources and Geology 229 

V.— Botany... .... 241 

VI— Timber and Fine Woods 285 

VII.— Zoography 305 

VIII.— Ethnography 329 

Part first — Origin of the Philippine Peoples 333 

Part second— Characteristics of the Races Inhabiting the 

Philippines 347 

IX.— Ethology ,. 387 

X.— Idiomography _ 395 



PAPER NO. I 



CHOROGRAPHY. 



PKOLOGUE. 



It was proposed in the beginning simply to reproduce in this collec- 
tion of papers the chorography of the Philippines by P. Beranaria 
(Society of Jesus), judging it to be the best of all published up to the 
present time; but considering the resulting size of the last parts of the 
physical geography — that is to say, the orography, the hydrography, 
and the climatology, which were simply mentioned in the geography 
of this author — it was deemed best to amplify the present treatise on 
chorography. In the composition of this paper we have made use of 
the most recent work; 1 that is to say, the last volume of the Official 
Guide of the Philippines, published in 1898, the Spanish-American 
Encyclopedic Dictionary, and several memoirs and articles relating to 
the Philippines, written by persons acquainted with the country. 

We have found marked discrepancies among the various authors who 
have written upon the chorography of the Philippines in three points: 
First, in geodetic measurements and measurements of areas and the 
census of the various islands, cities, towns, and of the various races, 
and in the spelling or orthography of the names of islands, towns, 
mountains, rivers, etc. In regard to measurements we have generally 
accepted those published by the Geographical Institute of Madrid. 
In regard to census we have given the preference to the data found in 
the most recent parochial books of registry, they seeming to us the 
truest sources of exact information in this matter. In regard to 
orthography of proper names we have adopted that which seemed to 
us most generally accepted and correct, consulting in doubtful cases 
the pronunciation of the natives, who, however, do not always seem 
to be in accord. The only recourse seems to be to use that orthogra- 
phy which agrees best with the tendencies of the dialects or languages 
spoken in the regions, towns, or islands where doubtful orthography 
pertains. 

The chorographic data relative to civil, military, and ecclesiastical 
organizations which existed before the 1st of May, 1898, have been 
united in the introduction, not alone to avoid repetition in the partial 
chorographic descriptions of each region, but because they no longer 
exist at the present time on account of the change of sovereignty in 
the islands. 

Observatory of Manila, 
December 8, 1899. 

1 The data in reference to the Visayas, Mindanao, and Jolo we owe in large part to 
the diligence of Padre Baltazar Ferrer, S. J., of the Observatory of Manila. 

5 



INTRODUCTION 



SITUATION AND BOUNDARIES OF THE PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO. 

The Philippine Archipelago is a group composed of many islands 
situated in the most northern part of the great Asiatic archipelago, 
within the North Torrid Zone, between 4° 4' and 20° 3' north lati- 
tude and 116° 4' and 126° 34' east longitude from the meridian of 
Greenwich. It is surrounded on the north and west bj- the China 
Sea, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, and on the south b} r the Sea of 
Celebes. From the extreme point of land on the northeast to the China 
coast is a distance of 630 kilometers. The nearest land on the north 
is the island of Formosa, on the east the Palaos Islands, on the south- 
east the Molucca Archipelago, on the south the island of Celebes, on 
the southwest the island of Borneo, and on the west Cochin China. 

The waters which surround it are very deep, not far from the east 
coast the Pacific being from 4,000 to 6,000 meters in depth. The Jolo 
Sea, between Mindanao and Jolo, reaches a depth of 4,069 meters, off 
the Celebes 3,750 to 4,755, and not far from the south coast of Min- 
danao the depth reaches 5,000 meters; nevertheless, the Philippines 
are united to the Asiatic archipelago at three points where the straits 
filled with islands reach but little depth, namely, north of Borneo by 
the islands of Balabac and Paragua, on the northeast of Borneo by the 
Jolo group, and on the northeast of Celebes by the islands of Sanguir 
and Talut. Without doubt, therefore, the whole of the Philippine 
Archipelago belongs to the same geographical region as Borneo, 
Sumatra, Java, and the rest of the islands of the great Asiatic archi- 
pelago, and in consequence to Asia rather than to Oceania. Con- 
sidering, therefore, only geographical reasons, it is sufficient to note 
the analogy which the situation of the Sunda Islands, the Celebes, the 
Moluccas, and the Philippines bear to Asia and that which the Antilles 
bear to America. The former bound the interior China and Sunda 
seas, the latter the Mexican and Caribbean seas, bathing, respectively, 
the Asiatic and American coasts. According to this analogy, there- 
fore, if the latter belong to America the former belong to Asia. 

ISLANDS WHICH FORM THE ARCHIPELAGO. 

It is believed that the number of islands exceeds 1,400, although in 
truth up to the present time no one can state the exact number. For 
greater clearness and system in that which is to be said in this paper, 
we shall consider the archipelago divided into the following parts or 
regions: 

First. Luzon and the contiguous islands. 1 

Second. The principal islands adjacent to Luzon. 

Third. The Visayan Islands and those adjacent to them. 

Fourth. Mindanao and the adjacent islands. 

1 Spanish-American Encyclopedic Dictionary, vol. VIII, p. 371. 



3 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Fifth. The Jolo group. 

Sixth. Paragua, Dumaran, and Balabac, and the islands adjacent to 
them. 

AREA, GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION, TERRITORIAL DIVISION, NUMBER OF 
INHABITANTS, AND DENSITY OF POPULATION. 



We take the data in regard to the territorial division, area, and 
number of inhabitants from the corresponding volume of the census 
of the population of Spain, according to the official census made 
December 31, 1887, and published in 1891 by the Institute of Geogra- 
phy and Statistics, conforming thus to the division already given. 
This data is at the present time but relative in regard to the census. 

Geographical situation. 



Provinces, districts, and 
islands. 



Latitude north. 



From- 



Longitude east of 
Greenwich. 



From — 



To— 



Area in 
square 
kilome- 
ters. 



Popula- 
tion. 



Popula- 
tion per 

square 
kilome- 
ter 

density 
of popu- 
lation |. 



Cagayan and Palani Islands. . 

Ilocos, north 

Abra 

Ilocos, south 

Isabela 

Bontoc 

Lepanto a 

Nueva Vizcaya 

Union 

Benguet 

Zambales 

Principe 

Pangasinan 

Nueva Ecija 

Carlac 

Pampanga 

Bulacan 

Bataan 

Manila 

Morong and Calim 

infanta and adjacent islands. 

La Laguna and Laguna de Hay 

Tayabas and adjacent islands 

Batangas. Laguna, and adja- 
cent islands 

Ambos Camarines and adja 
eenl islands 

Cavite and Corregidoi 

Albay, Catanduanes, and ad 
jacent islands 

Sorsogon 



17 4 
17 



PRINCIPAL ISLANDS AIM \. IM 
TO LUZON. 

Archipelago of Butanes and 

Babuyanes d 

Mindoronndadjacent Islands: 

Lubang, Bugayao, [ling, 
tfarinduque, Semerara, 

Sibay and Caluya 

Burias 

Masbate and Tlcao e 

Archipelago of Calamia- 

nes and of CuyOfl <( 



17 1 

10 9 
10 

17 1 
10 7 
16 1 
16 1 

10 1 

14 7 

15 6 
15 7 
15 2 
15 2 
14 8 

11 6 
14 4 
14 3 
14 2 
14 3 
13 8 

18 2 



18 2 

11 6 



12 8 

12 ."> 



is 8 



12 2 

12 7 

II 7 

10 7 



18 
16 

18 

17 

17 

17 

17 

17 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16 

15 

15 3 

15 3 

11 9 

14 8 

14 8 

14 7 

11 7 

14 6 



II 



21 



L8 5 
L8 S 
12 7 



120 
120 
120 
120 
121 
120 
120 
120 
120 
120 
119 
121 
120 
120 
120 
120 
120 
120 
120 
121 
121 
121 
121 



122 2 
120 6 



128 2 
L28 8 



121 2 



L20 8 

122 9 

128 1 

119 7 



122 
121 

121 
120 
122 
121 
121 
121 
120 
120 
120 
122 
120 
121 



120 7 



121 9 

121 i 

12(1 6 

121 1 

121 5 

121 7 

121 (i 

122 8 

121 1 

12:; 9 

121 

124 

121 1 



121 



121 6 

128 i 
124 l 



121 



13,968 
3,328 

1 . 42 1 
11.2:;i 
1 . 322 
2, 690 
1,384 
2,008 
2,416 
•_'. 229 
3,051 
2,854 
6,610 
b5,368 
2,208 
2,965 
1 , 26 1 
(.72 

1,656 
2,194 
2,608 

3,180 

:. 397 

!.:;.> i 

1.12:: 
1,954 



620 



10, 167 
8,897 
1,600 



96,357 

163,349 

11,318 

18,302 

13,985 

23,945 

L9,379 

U0.064 

15,734 

87,275 

4,198 

302,178 

156,610 

228,902 

239,221 

50,781 

16,940 

7. 100 
169,983 
L09,780 

311,180 

194,022 
185,068 

L95, 129 



67, 656 
21,866 
14,291 



0.9 

49. 1 
11.0 

120.2 
::. I 

10.6 
B.9 
4,4 

548 
6. 5 

39. 2 
1.4 

105.9 
23. 7 
89. 2 

101. I 

10.2 
117 

8.2 
65.8 

1 s. 6 

99 4 

21.0 
99. 7 

17.;; 



17.0 



B 7 
2. I 

s. 8 



a We include data in regard to the comandanoia of Tiagan, the same in regard to the coman- 

dancias included in tin- other |.n>\ inccs. 

b There la probablyan error in these numbers. The number given by Padre Banners is prob- 
ably more correct-- 2,277 square kilometers. 
c 'l'lds number is actually considerably greater, 
d [ncludlng all the group. 

e There must be an error In this number. We adopt the number published in the treatise on 
orography— 720 square kilometers. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



Geological situation — Continued. 



Provinces, districts and 
islands. 



Panay and adjacent islands: 

Antique and Cagayan 

Capiz.Calaguan, Gigantes, 

Sicogon and Carabao 

Iloilo, Guimaras, Hampu- 
lugan, Malagaban, Pan 
de Azucar, Cagabanjan, 
Cagu, etc 

Bobol and adjacent islands 
(Bohol, Minoco, Pinigan or 
Lapinig, Panglao or Danis, 
Siquijor or Iuegos) 

Cebu and adjacent islands 
(Cebii, Bantayan, Guinta- 
can, Mactan, Malapascua 
and Olango) 

Negros 

Samar and adjacent islands 
(Samar. Balicuatro, Batag 
Capul, Dalupirit or Puercos, 
Tamonjol or Malhon, Sa- 
guan or Lavang or Calamu- 
tang, Mauiconi, Parasan, 
Buad Los Naranjos Mesa, 
Cagapula, and Limbaucau- 
ayan) 

Leyte and adjacent islands 
( Leyte, Biliran , Calunnagan , 
Limasua, Camotes, Carnasa, 
Gigantagan, Maripipi, Pa- 
naon, etc.) 

Xomblon and adjacent islands 
(Rombl6n, Banton, Maestre 
de Campo, Sibuyan, Simara, 
Tablas, and adjacent is- 
lands) b 



MINDANAO AND ADJACENT 
ISLANDS. 

Surigao and adjacent islands 
(Bucos, Dinagat, Hinatuan, 
Guipoo, Siargao, Sibunga, 
and various islands) 

Misamis and adjacent islands 
(Camaguin, Silina, and two 
islands) 

Zamboariga and adjacent is- 
lands (Malinipa, Olutanga, 
Santa Cruz, Tigtauan, and 
Tumalustan) 

Cottabato and Bongo 

Davao and adjacent islands 
(Samal, Malipano, Talicud, 
Sarangani, and various is- 
lands) 

Basilan and adjacent islands 
(Basilan group) 



JOLO ARCHIPELAGO. 

First group^-Balanguigui: 
id 



14 



islands, 7 desertec 

Second group— Jolo: 13 is- 
lands, 7 uninhabited 

Third group — Recuaponson : 
8 islands, almost all deserted. 

Fourth group— Panguratan: 
23 islands, 12 deserted 

Fifth group— Tagbabas: Mis- 
lands, deserted 

Sixth group— Tawitawi: 42 
islands, 30 deserted c 

Paragua and Dumaran 

Balabac 



Latitude north. 



From- 



9 6 



9 4 
9 1 



To— 



12 2 



6 8 

7 3 



6 8 
6 3 



5 6 

6 4 



4 5 



8 3 



11 9 



10 2 



11 3 
11 



12 7 



11 6 



13 1 



9 8 
9 1 



6 4 



11 5 
8 2 



Longitude east of 
Greenwich. 



From— 



121 



123 7 



123 3 
122 4 



124 



124 3 



125 1 

122 2 



121 9 
123 2 



123 9 
121 



119 3 



117 1 
116 8 



To— 



123 2 



124 6 



124 6 
123 6 



125 3 



126 6 
125 4 



123 3 
125 2 



126 3 
6 122 3 



121 4 



119 7 
117 1 



Area in 
square 
kilome- 
ters. 



13,538 



3,528 



6,582 
9,341 



Popula- 
tion. 



9,976 



1,278 



99,450 



1,275 



1,765 



14,584 



f 115, 434 
194, 890 
432, 462 

224, 965 



504, 076 
,242,433 



185, 386 

270, 491 

34,828 

67, 760 
116,024 



17, 199 
4,138 



3,966 
1,119 



5,985 
2,110 



Popula- 
tion per 
square 
kilome- 
ter 
(density 
of popu- 
lation). 



54. 1 



76.6 



27.1 



27.3 



1.6 



a The number of inhabitants is actually much greater — according to the last official guide 372,001. 
b Including all the islands of the group. 
cSome reduce these six groups to four. 



10 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

OBSERVATIONS IN REGARD TO THE MMI'.KK OF INHABITANTS. 

In regard to the number of inhabitants, which, according to the pre- 
vious statistics, reaches 5,985,124, it is necessary to observe that these 
statistics treat only of the inhabitants recorded in some way or other 
in civil records; in the parochial records, verified by greater time, there 
appears a larger number than in the civil census — differences due in 
part to the greater or less number of omissions, and to the more or Less 
perfect knowledge of the number of pagans. It should be taken into 
account that this includes the number of inhabitants in the various 
islands and provinces. In an examination finished the latter part of 
1894 it appears that the population of the various islands included 
in the general government of the Philippines is formed as follow-: 

Pi i] mlation according to the parochial records 6,414, 373 

On rissions and absentees (2 per cent) 123, 237 

Clergy 2,651 

Military L3,640 

Navy :;. 459 

( larl >ineers (coast and customs guard) 440 

Civil guard 

Veteran civil guard 413 

Inmates of asylums 

( lonvicts 702 

Foreigners: 

Chinese, registered ] 49, <>w 

Absentees 

Europeans, Americans, and others 1 . 000 

Moros: 

Paragua and Jolo Archipelago 100, 000 

Mindanao and Basilan 209,000 

Pagans in Philippines: 

Subjugated 1 38, 000 

Independent tribes 692, 01 10 

Total 7. 782, 759 

This number, however, seems to l>o very near to the truth, even if 
it i> reduced on account of omissions, absentees, Moros, and pagans, who 
do not appear in the official census. There would have been a very 
slight increase in tin 1 population from ls77 to L894, but, as thearchbishop 
noted iu L887, the preceding ten years were full of calamities for the 
Philippines, so that the total annual increase was about eight-tenths o\' 
1 per cent, and fmin that time until L894, inclusive, the archipelago 
has likewise suffered serious misfortunes, among which should be 
recorded epidemics of cholera, influenza, and smallpox. It is to be 
noted likewise, in regard to the political civil divisions of Luzon. that 
in certain of the provinces or districts mentioned there have recently 
been formed polit ico-militarv oomandancias. which an 1 briefly enume- 
rated to complete the list. 

\i:w OOMANDANCIAS. 

Apavaos. situated to the north of the province of ( Sagayan ^\^' Luzon. 
Oabugaoan, Likewise in the north of Luzon, is situated to the east o\' 
the COmandancia of Apavaos. 

1 According t<. the data in the oflBce of the secretary of the archbishop of Manila, 
at the beginning of the year 1898 tin- population estimated by the parochial priests 
was 6,659,998, according to which (lie Bum total would be 7,928,384, 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. - 11 

Amburayan, situated between the districts of Benguet, Tiagan, 
Lepanto, and the provinces of South Ilocos and Union. 

Itaves, between the provinces of Cagayan and Isabela. 

Binatangan, on the east coast of the Island of Luzon, between Isabela 
and the district of Principe. 

Saltan, in the province of Isabela. 

Llavac, likewise in the province of Isabela. 

Cayapa, created in 1891, in the island of Luzon, near the River Am- 
bayan, near the province of Nueva Viscaya. 

Quiangan, just to the west of Lepanto. 

The area of these comandancias, and the number of inhabitants 
included in the area, are included in the provinces or districts in which 
they are found. 

We shall now take up the chorography of each of the aforementioned 
islands, provinces, and districts, allowing them space proportionate to 
their importance; giving, first, a general description of the island, its 
geographical situation, its area, and treating briefly the number and 
character of its inhabitants and its politico-civil division into provinces, 
districts, and comandancias; afterwards, if the island is a large one, 
we shall divide it into various regions, discussing these individually, 
beginning with those found farthest to the north, and continuing 
to follow this plan according to the atlas of the Philippines. We 
shall leave out hydrographic and orographic descriptions, which the 
reader will find in the papers on hydrography and orography, con- 
fining ourselves especially to what may be called the politico -civil cho- 
rography, without omitting the data, and physical geography, which is 
not especially discussed in the other papers, such as the geograph- 
ical situations, dialects, or languages of the inhabitants, industries and 
products of the different islands of the provinces. 

MILITARY ORGANIZATION. 

THE ARMY OF THE PHILIPPINES. 

The army of the Philippines was composed of infantry, cavalry, 
artillery, engineers, the civil guard, and the coast guard. There 
existed also the executive branches of the sanitary and veterinaiy 
departments of equitation, the auxiliaries of the military offices, and 
the military clergy. For the organization and control of these forces 
there were a captain-general and various departments, as follows: 
Infantry, cavalry, civil guard, artillery, engineers, and that of army 
sanitation, together with an administrative body from the army, and 
military clergy. At the beginning of the year 1898 there existed the 
following divisions of operations: Mindanao, under the command of a 
general of division, the brigades Iligan and Jolo, the general coman- 
dancia of Manila and Morong, and that of Laguna and Batangas, that 
of Cavite, and various ifying columns which operated in other parts of 
the archipelago, commanded by generals of brigades or by colonels. 

NAVAL FORCES. 
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OP THE' NAVY. 

The naval forces of the archipelago comprised the naval station and 
a squadron. The immediate commander of both of these was the gen- 
eral commandant of the dockyard and fleet, a position held by a rear- 



12 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

admiral of the oavy. The naval station and its various branches and 
departments assumed direction of all affairs of this branch. The fleet 
had charge of the inspection, vigilance, and defense of the waters and 
coasts of the islands. The archipelago was divided into naval districts, 
at the head of which there was a commandant of varying rank, accord- 
ing to the importance of the district, who exercised at the same time 
the duties of harbor master of the most important port in his jurisdic- 
tion. The naval station included all necessary branches, with an 
arsenal established at Cavite, another in construction at Subig (Olon- 
gapo), a dry dock in Lsabela de Basilan, and a dock at Pollok equipped 
with the necessary machine shops. The comma d of the naval station 
of the Philippines was held by a rear-admiral of the navy, who had 
at his order a general staff for the naval districts and one for the fleet. 
The next in command of the naval station was a captain of the navy of 
the iirst class, who was at the same time commandant of the arsenal at 
Cavite. The commandant was assisted by a captain of the navy of the 
economic board, composed of the leading officers of each branch, and 
the auditor's department, which assisted in all matters of justice. 

DEPENDENCIES OF THE NAVAL STATION. 

The general board of the navy, composed of chiefs and officers who 
exercised command either in the naval station or on ships of the fleet; 
the engineering corps of the navy, represented by a chief engineer 
and two other officers of that bod}^; the corps of the artillery of the oavy, 
in command of a commandant or lieutenant-colonel; the administrative 
board, composed of a deputy of the navy, the comptroller, and the 
accountants of the navy; the marine infantry, commanded by a 
Lieutenant-colonel, composed of disembarking forces and companies; 
arsenal guards; the sanitary department of the navy, at the head of which 
there was a subinspector of the first class; the ecclesiastical corps of 
the oavy; the judge-advocate's corps of the navy, which was formed 
of the auditor and tin 1 attorney and four assistants; the naval forces, 
composed of the ships' fleet, the comandancias of the navy, which were 
those of Manila and Iloilo, and depending upon those the districts of 
Pangasinan, I locos. Aparri, Marianas, the Caroline Islands, and Levte, 
and the coinandancia of the naval division of the south, and depending 
upon these the divisions and districts of Mindanao and lsabela. 

THE FLEET. 

The fleet was composed of the following vessels: 

Two cruisers of the firsl class the Rema Oristivna and the GnstiUa, 

Two protected cruisers of the second class- —I%la cU Lustfn and Ida 
</, ( \jba. 

Three cruisers of the second class—the Vdasco, the Don Juam <JU 
Austria, and the Don Antonio <iL UTloa. 

Three cruisers of the third class Marques dd />><>/■<>. Eloano^ and 
(i, neral l.< to* 

Two gunboats of the first class Quvros and Vtllaloboa. 

Three transports Manila, Cebu, and General Alavau 

One steamer of the hydrographio commission the Argos. 

Thirteen gunboats of the second class ( 'alamiafies^ Paraguay Samar, 
Leyte, Buvusan, Marweles, Arayat, Pampanga, Aioay, Manileno^ 
Minaoro, Panay, GaUao, and Mindanao, 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 13 

Four gunboats of the third class — Otalora, Urdaneta, Basco, and 
Gardoqui. 

Four armed steam launches — -Corcuera, Almonte, Lanao, and General 
Blanco. 

One tug — Rdpido. 

Three steam launches and two others for the exclusive use of the 
commander in chief and the arsenal of Cavite, without counting those 
which were at Yap and at Isabela de Basilan. 

The marine infantry force of the station was as follows: 

A colonel (subinspector), a lieutenant-colonel of the first class, and 
the other chiefs and officers who formed the second battalion of the 
first regiment of this archipelago; also the company of arsenal guards 
who garrisoned Cavite and Subig. 

p c — vol 3 — 01 2 



CHAPTER T. 

LUZON. 
GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION. 



Luzon the largest and most northern of the islands of the 1 hihp- 
D i„e ^ArchipelagoTis situated between latitude L2 32'and 18 39 norft 
. longitude 119 ^' and 124° 8' eastfrom Greenwich, In form it is 
very ir&ar, elongated from north to south and southeast much 

uil ,V,u. L north than ,,t the south. It narrows very muchat MW, 
where the Bay of Manila is situated; and very much more at 14 .whew 
a narrow isthmus unites the larger and western part of the island witl 
tin' custom. 

SHAPE OF ISLAND. 

The coast of Luzon 1 presents a great number of irregularities. 
There is near the center and on the south, where there are large bays, 
excellent portsand Harbors. From Point Negra, at the extreme north- 
west of the island, the coast extends southwest to ( ape Bojeador; it 
then turns to the south southeast and south southwest, and continues 
in this direction as far as Point Dile. In all oi this part, of approxi- 
mately 1 Cape Bojeador being 18 30' and Point Dile being 1 i 34 — 
K the Bay of Dirique, the bar of Omit. Point CuMi Port ( ur- 
\, U , UK the Guff of Gan, the island of Bado< . and Point Solot, a 
belonging to the coast of the province of North Hocos. 1 he island and 
port of Salomague and the island of Pinget belong to the coast oi the 
province of South [locos. , . 

\t Point Dile the coast begins to form a curve toward the east, in 
whic h are the Bay of Solbet and ports Sun Estaban and Santiago. 
The coast continues toward the south with a slight deviation asfaras 
Point Darigayos almost in the same meridian as 1 oint Dile. 

Before reaching Darigayos, at the mouth of the river Amhurayan 
the province of feouth Ilocos ends and that of Union begins and 
extends almost in a straight Line to the south, with a slight inclination 
t,,ward the west, terminating at Point San Fernando. Here the east- 
ern coast of the Gulf of Lingayen begins. Toward the eastern end 
of this eulf, and ..car the mouth of the river Rabong, the province 
of Panjrasinan begins. The provincial boundary between Pangasinan 
and Zambales starts opposite the island of Cabalitian. From the vicinity 
of the island ot Santiago or Purra the coast advances to the west and 
southwest, formmgCap* Bolinao,and then continues toward the south 
withoutothernotable variation than Point Arenas, the Bay ot A-uo.and 
Point Tambobo. At Point Cain. a... somewhat to the south ot the six- 
teenth parallel, and fronting Cuelbra Island it turns to the east to form 
the Baj of Dazol, on whose coast are seen points Bayamban, Banop, 

■Encyclopedic Dictionary, Spanish and English, Vol. XI. 



1 I 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 15 

and Santa Cruz, in front of the islands Older and Younger Sisters. 
South of the shoal of Sabalay are Points Arenas and Bani, Port 
Masinfoc, the San Salvador and Macalabo Islands, and the points and 
reefs of Palaing. From here it inclines to the southeast and south- 
southeast as far as the mountainous peninsula which is hemmed in on 
the west by the Capones, Tabones, and Frailes Islands, which likewise 
includes on the west the Port of Subig. On the southeast of this pen- 
insula is the Port of Silanguin. 

Within the port of Subig is Alongapo, where the province of 
Bataan begins, forming, with the peninsula which limits it on the west, 
the Bay of Manila, whose coasts belong to the provinces of Bataan, 
Pampanga, Bulacan, Manila, and Cavite. Leaving the Bay of Manila, 
toward the south ^is found the Gulf of Patungan, with the Carabao 
and Limbones Islands. At the head of this bay the province of 
Batangas begins. Farther to the south Port Jameto, Point Fuego, 
Fortun Island, Point San Diego, Talin, and Cape Santiago are found. 
From this point, about 13° 45' north latitude, the southern coast of 
Luzon presents the Gulf of Papagas, the Ba}^ of Balayan, Point 
Cazador, the island of Maricaban, the Bay of Batangas, Points Malocot, 
Arenas, Talajib, Rosario, Malabrigo, Puno, Malagundi, and Locoloco, 
and the little Gulf of Coloconto. At Point Puna the coast turns 
toward north-northeast, and east to form the great Gulf of Tayabas. 
At the north of San Juan de Bogbog, at the bar of Nay on, the coast 
of the province of Tayabas begins. From here it stretches to the 
southeast and south, and Point Tuguian, the Bay of Catananan, the 
island of Mompog, the Port of Mulanay, the Gulf of Agoin, Aguasa 
Bay, and Point Bondog, this being the extreme southern point of the 
great peninsula which bounds the Bay of Ragay on the west, at which 
point to the north and east the coast of Tayabas ends and that of 
South Camarines begins. The eastern coast of this bay advances to 
the south nearly to the thirteenth parallel at Point Cadouranan, where 
to the north, and not far from Point Talo, is the boundary between 
South Camarines and Albay. After doubling this point, Cadburanan, 
called also Point Panganiran, the coast extends to the east and south- 
east and forms an irregular peninsula, whose southern end is the 
extreme southern point of the island, 12° 32'. 

Along this coast are the islands of Lamuyon and Solitario, the prom- 
ontory of Catandalan, the port of Putiao, the great port of Sorsogon, 
and several small bays. Doubling Points Langao and Babulgan, in the 
Strait of San Bernardino, the eastern coast of Luzon begins. The 
islands of Calinton, Iaac, and Tictin are first seen, and to the north 
the prominent point of Binorongan and others, as far as Bingay, 
where the coast turns to the west to form tne Bay of Albay, shut in on 
the north by the islands of Rapu-Rapu, Batan, and Cacraray. This, 
with the island of San Miguel and the coast north of the peninsula, 
which bounds the northern part of this bay, forms the Bay of Tobaco. 
Again the coast takes a direction north and northwest, and at Punta 
Gorda, somewhat to the south of the island of Atalayan, is the eastern 
boundary of the provinces of Albay and South Camarines. The coast 
then turns in a semicircle to form the Ba}^ of Lagonoy and continues 
to the east as far as the Straits of Maqueda and Tacbun, where the 
Bay of Lugon and the Canaguan Islands are seen. 

At Point Panahonga, near the Pitogo Islands, the coast inclines 
toward the west and continues in this direction of west-northwest, with 



1C) BEPOBT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

great irregularities, as far a> the Bay of Lamon. Along this distance 
are curved successively the islands of Matatarad, Lanquipao, Luesu- 
hin. Lahuy, and Quinabugan, Point Tinajuagan. the port of Sisiran, 
the islands of Quinalasag, Bacacay, Lamit, Sibanan, and Paniqui, the 
Point and port of Tambang, Point Quinabucasan, the islands of Siruna, 
Canton, CaringO, (amino, and others, at the entrance to the great 
Bay of San Miguel. Along the western coast of this hay is the bound- 
ary between North and South Camarines and the island of Quinama- 
oucan, the Calagnas Islands. Cape Baluagan, and Point Pinagdungan, 
Paranquiran, and Tailon, Pulumbato andTunco islands, the Bay of 
Mambulao, and various small islands; also the island of Jaulo and the 
Bay of Snoot, at the head of which is the boundary between North 
Camarines and Tayabas. Much to the north are the island of Jomalig, 
the peninsula which terminates in Point Dappal, the Balegin. Pasig, 
and A la bat islands, and the Bay of Apal. 

From the hay of Lamon, fronting the island of Calbalete, the coast 
of Luzon continues from south to north with some inclination to north 
northeast. It is the least known of any part of the island. Its coast 
line corresponds to the district or province of Infanta, and the most 
notable features of it are the royal port of Lampon and Point Inagui- 
can, fronting the southern part of the island of Polillo. Passing the 
northern boundary of Infanta, along the coast of Xueva Ecija. the Bay 
of Dingala is found; to the north of which, not far from Point Sua. the 
province of Principe begins. Here the coast begins to incline more 
to the northeast, and along it are seen Point Diotoring, tin 4 Pay of 
Dibut, Point Encanto, the Bay of Baler, the Bay of Casiguran, and 
the strait and long peninsula which terminate with the cape of San 
Ddefonso. 

Somewhat to the north of this peninsula the coast of the province 
of Isabela begins. Here are seen the Bay of Dilasac, or port of 
Tumango, and the Bay of Palanan. After describing the curve 
which forms this bay it goes almost due north, interrupted only by 
the small peninsula of Point Aubarade. Doubling quickly to the 
northwest and west, it forms the port of Dunalanson and the Bay of 
Divilican, and again takes tin 4 direction north and north northwest as 
far as 17 30' north latitude, where 1 tin 1 province of Isabela ends and 
Cagayan begins. Without notable variation it passes Latitude I s . 
turns to the northeast to form a curve, and takc-s a westerly direction 
at Point Escarpada. On the coast of North Luzon, from this point, 
are passed the island of Palani and Cape Kngano. forming a great bay 
<>!• curve towards the south, where the mouth of tin 1 river Cagayan is. 
and further to the northwest the mouth o[' tin 1 river Pamplona is 
-em. It continues to the northeast as far as Point Cabiumgan, and 
at that point to Mayraira, farther to the west, which are tin 1 most 
noii hern points of Luzon. Between these two points, somewhat 
nearer the former, is the boundary between Cagayan and North [lo- 
cos. Farther on. between points Dialao ami Negra. is seen the Bay 
of Bangui. 

TOTAL \i;i: \ \\n eon LATION. 

The total area, including tin 1 nearest adjacent islands, is L06,631 

square kilometers, and the number of inhabitants 3,432,424, according 

to the table which will be seen in the introduction. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 17 

TERRITORIAL DIVISION. 
NORTH OF LUZON. 

The north of Luzon includes the provinces of Cagayan, near to 
the island of Palani, and the comandancias of Apayaos, Cabagaoan, 
and Itaves; North Ilocos and South Ilocos, with the comandancias of 
Amburayan and Tiagan; Abra, with the comandancia of Bontoc; Isa- 
bela, with the comandancias of Saltan and Lavac; Lepanto, with the 
comandancia of Quiangan; Union, Benguet, Nueva Viscaya, with the 
comandancia of Cayapa; and the district of Principe, with the coman- 
dancia of Binatangan. These provinces and districts, marked out on 
map No. 7 of the atlas of the Philippines, constitute the subject- 
matter of Chapter II. 

CENTER OP LUZON (a) . 

Includes the provinces of Zambales, Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, 
Tarlac, Pampanga, Bulacan, and the district of Infanta, near to the 
island of Polillo'. They are included in maps Nos. 8 and 12 of the atlas 
of the Philippines and are discussed in Chapter III. 

CENTER OF LUZON (b) . 

Includes the provinces of Bataan, Manila, Cavite, Morong, Laguna, 
and Batangas, and are indicated in map No. 9 and discussed in Chap- 
ter IV. 

SOUTH OF LUZON (a) . 

Includes the provinces of Tayabas and North Camarines, shown in 
map No. 10 and described in Chapter V. 

SOUTH OF LUZON (b) . 

Includes the provinces of South Camarines, Albay, and Sorsogon, 
indicated in map No. 11 and described in Chapter V. 

ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

In the discussion of each one of the groups of provinces something 
is said of the nearest islands, leaving to Chapter VI the full discussion 
of the so-called " adjacent islands," which are, in the order of their 
situation from north to south, the Batanes and Babuyanes Groups, 
Mindoro and its adjacent islands, Burias, Masbate and Ticao, the 
Calamianes Group, and Cuyos Group. Of the races which inhabit these 
islands and their languages brief mention will be made in the discus- 
sion of the various provinces, but only by way of description, with- 
out taking up philological or other considerations, which the reader 
will find in Paper 7, where the ethnology of the Filipinos is treated 
in full. As the products of these islands are so varied, as also the 
industry and commerce of the various provinces, these points will be 
touched upon in the description of each separate province, the reader 
being referred to the special paper on the commerce and industries of 
the Philippines, Paper II. 



CHAPTER II. 

NORTH OF LUZON AM) XKAIIKST TSI.AXDS. 
[Map No. 7 of the atlas of the Philippim 
PROVINCE OF CAGAYAJS AND ISLAND OF PALANI. 
BOUNDARIES AM) GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

This province is very large and rich, and is one of the oldest in the 
archipelago. On the north it is bathed by the China Sea. bounded on 
the south by Isabela, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, and on the west 
by Itaves and Apayaos and North Ilocos. The country is broken with 
high mountains covered with vegetation. Between the low mountains 
and the elevated chains there are extensive but irregular valleys, with 
calcareous and eiay or granite soil. There are about fifty rivers and 
creeks, which water these valleys. There is a notable grotto in the 
island <>f Quira. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The area of this province is 13,968 square kilometers. The inhabit- 
ants number 96,367. The province is inhabited by various races, the 
pagans usually occupying the mountains and the more inaccessible 
coast of the Pacific. The Actus, or Negrito race, inhabit the eastern 
chain of the Sierra Madre Mountains on tin 4 Pacific side. The Lrayas 
occupy the western side of this chain. The Gadanes occupy tin 4 
country between the Chico and Magat rivers. The Calingas 1 are 
found between t ho Rio Grande and the 4 Apayao River and Mount 
Aiming. The Apayaos are found in the great central chain o\' Luzon; 
the [taves toward the south of the province. Tin 1 Calanas, Naba- 
guyanes, Catalanganes, [tetapanes, and Dayadas are found in the 
mountain regions. The Gumaanes live in the highest mountains 
between Abra and Cagayan. The Christian natives are called Caga- 
yanes. A. certain number of immigrants from Docos are also found. 
Many of the civilized inhabitants are descendants of this race: others 
come from other races and provinces of the archipelago, and consti- 
tute, with (he Cagayanes, tin 1 nucleus of the population o{ the towns. 
The natives are pacific and affable, and are considerate o\' their guests. 



l he capital is Tuguegarao, situated near the Rio Grande, toward the 
Bouth of thepro> ince, and numbers 1 7,358 inhabitants. Tin 1 church and 
government houses are of stone, and tin* public Bquare is one of the 
largest in the entire archipelago. The principal town is Aparri, with a 



'Galinga in the [banag language means "enemy," and i> applied at times to the 
Bavagee of the valley of the Rio Grande de Cagayan. This word i- usually used 
t<» indicate the pagans, vt li«« inhabit tin- eone. 
18 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 19 

population of 11,665, situated at the mouth of the Rio Grande, the port 
of which is very shallow, and only small steamers can enter the mouth 
of the river with safety during the months from November to January. 
From Aparri, going up the river, the following towns are successively 
encountered: Camalanigan, with a population of 5,171; Lal-lo, which 
formerly was the Episcopal see of Nueva Segovia, with 5,707 inhabit- 
ants; Gattaran, with 2,^18 inhabitants; Nassiping, with 835: Aicala, 
with 6,637; Amulung, with 6,193, and Iguig, with 1,619.' All of 
these towns are found on the eastern side of the river. On the west- 
ern side, almost in the southern limit of the province, is found the 
town of Enrile, with a population of 6,000. To the north of Enrile is 
Solana, with a population of 5,000, andTuao, on the banks of the River 
Chico, with a population of 1,025. Toward the north the towns of 
greatest importance are Pamplona, with 3,111 inhabitants, and Cla- 
veria, with about 2,000. The total number of towns is 22, there being 
also 180 villages or hamlets and 113 hamlets of subjugated infidels. 



In the vicinity of Tuguegarao, Ibanag is commonly spoken. The 
people of the town itself speak Itaves, and the Negritos speak Idayan, 
or Aeta. On the opposite side of the river from Tuguegarao, in the 
vicinity of Enrile, the Gaddane language is spoken. In Aicala, as most 
of the families constituting the population have immigrated from 
Ilocos, the Ilocos language is spoken almost exclusively. In the north 
and on the eastern bank of the Rio Grande, Ibanag is generally 
spoken, and is considered to be the language of the most cultivated 
people, and is the same as the Caga}^an, which is spoken in many parts 
of the province. In the hamlets on the western side of the river, 
Itaves, Apayao, and Mandayo are spoken, and Maneleg is spoken in 
the southern part. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE. 

The principal and most valuable product is tobacco, of which 300,000 
bales, valued at more than 11,000,000, are annually exported. The 
best quality is produced in the vicinity of Itaves, where there still 
remain large uncultivated areas, whose cultivation could easily double 
the production of this valuable commodity. There are most excellent 
woods, but on account of the broken and mountainous character of 
the country they are difficult to obtain. The natives take a certain 
amount to the towns, dragging it along with carabaos as far as the 
rivers or creeks, from whence it is taken down in rafts or baranga- 
yanes. 1 The principal kinds are camalayad, brenga, pamalalian, and 
afin, which is employed in the construction of small boats, molave, 
ipil, narra, camagon, cedro, ebano, palo-maria, and others, which are 
employed in the construction of houses and furniture. In addition to 
tobacco, rice, corn, and nipa are cultivated. It is, however, necessary 
to import rice and other food stuffs, because that raised is not suf- 
ficient to maintain the inhabitants. The industries are represented 

1 See plate 1, which represents a pontoon bridge over the river Tinacanacian, on 
the plantation of San Antonio. We are indebted for this photograph and others in 
this chapter to the kindness of Don Arnando Villemer, chief of the Compania General 
de Tobacos de Filipinas. 



20 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

b} r blacksmith and carpenter shops; distilleries for the distillation 
of wine from nipa; fisheries; salt-making establishments; rice mills; 
and a few ordinary looms for the weaving of fabrics, which are used 
in the manufacture of clothing and the manufacture of mats from 
buri. There are in the province about 80,000 head of live stock, of 
which 32,000 are carabaos, 21,000 cattle, 14,000 hogs, and 13,000 
horses. Some stone quarries are worked, and it is said that there are 
copper mines in the volcanic chain of Magnipit. 

The roads which lead from Tuguegarao to Cabagan, in [sabela; from 
Llao to Aparri; from Llao to Alcalaand to Tuguegarao; from Tugue- 
garao to Carig; from Tuao to Piat, and from Piat to Tabang arc always 
in good condition and permit of the passage of carriages. Those 
which unite the other towns with each other can be used only by 
horses. These paths and roads are impassable during the rainy sea- 
son. Rivers are crossed b}^ means of bridges of balsas or rafts. 

THE ISLAND OF PALANI. 

The island of Palani, separated from the northeastern extremity of 
Cagayan by a narrow strait, is of medium height and with very rugged 
coasts; it is about 5 miles long from north to south and 2£ miles wide. 
Cape Engano, formed by its northeastern extremity, is of medium 
elevation, and its southern point, which is at the same time the point 
west of Point San Vicente, is an elevated and rounded mountain. 
The point which forms Cape Engano has in front a short coral reef, 
from which are visible two rocks called the "Two Sisters. " The larger 
and most northern of these is about one-quarter of a mile wide and 
about one-half mile from the cape. The coast to the west of the 
island is rugged and inaccessible to the point. To the northeast are 
two islands, the largest and most distant being called the Isla del Cabo, 
or Big Laja, and which is an inaccessible square of lava, approximately 
one-half mile long, and can be seen at a distance of 27 miles. The 
water in sight of this island is from 15 to 20 meters deep. There is 
at Cape Engano a light-house of the first class, showing groups of 
white lights. 

COMANDANCIA OF APAYAOS. 

This politico-military eomandancia, situated on the eastern side of 
the grand central chain of mountains of the north, is bounded on the 
north by Claveria, Pamplona, and Aiming; on the east by Llao and 
Gattaran, as far as the junction of the Rio Chico with tin 1 Cagayan 
River; on the south by the left hank of the Rio Chico. and on the 
west by the slopes of the grand mountain chain of the north. The 
population Is about L6,000, and includes about 4<> villages. The prin- 
cipal towns are Fotol and Capinatan. 

COM whWVIA (>K OABAGAOAN. 

The plitico-military eomandancia is bounded on the north by the 
towns of Pamplona, Claveria, and Aiming: on the east by the eoman- 
dancia of Apayaos; on the south by Ahra. and on the west by North 

[locos. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 21 



COMANDANCIA OF ITAVES. 

This politico -military comandancia, organized in 1889, is bounded on 
the north by the legal limits of the Apayaos tribe, and on the east by 
the limits of the towns of Reina Mercedes, Gamu, Ilagan, Hacienda 
de Santa Isabel, Fumanin, Cabagan Nueva, and Viejo, Santa Maria, 
Enrile, Solana, Fuao, Piat, and Manaleg in its western mountains, 
which join with the Apayaos tribe on the south at the legal boundary, 
along the watershed north of the mountains of Bunginan, on the west 
by the boundaries of the provinces of Albay and Bon toe. It contains 
more than 15,000 inhabitants. The principal town is Magogao. 
There are in Itaves more than 126 villages, formed for the most part 
by the Calanas, who speak the Itaves language. 1 

NORTH ILOCOS. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

This province is bounded on the north and west by the China Sea, on 
the south by South Ilocos, on the east by the central mountain chain, 
as far as its termination at the China Sea, which separates it from 
Cagayan and from Abra. Its greatest length from north to south is 19 
leagues. The country is mountainous and much broken, with excel- 
lent and varied vegetation. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The area of this province is 3,32-1 square kilometers, inhabited by 
some 163,319 persons, according to the civil census. A certain num- 
ber of the Apayaos tribe, Tinguianes, and Igorrotes also inhabit this 
province, but the majority of the population is composed of Indians, 
called Ilocanos. 

TOWNS. 

Laoag, which means "clearness," because the sky and atmosphere 
are always clear, is the capital, has a population of 28,122, and extends 
for about 3 miles along the seashore and along the river of the 
same name, on an extensive plain, having some hills. About the center 
is an excellent church and hospital and many houses well constructed. 
San Nicolas, to the south of Laoag, on the opposite bank of the river, 
has 9,581 inhabitants. San Miguel, farther in the interior, on the 
bank of the same river, has 8,993 inhabitants. Dingras, still farther 
in the interior, but also near to the river, has 11,517 inhabitants. 
Piddig, to the north of Dingras, has a population of 10,579. Bacarra, 
not far from the sea, on the bank of the river of the same name, has a 
population of 12,313. To the south of San Nicolas is the important 
town of Batac, containing more than 19.000 inhabitants; and to the 
south of Batac, on the seacoast, is the port of Currimao. Pasay, 
between Batac and Currimao, has a population of 12,153. Farther to 
the south, and on the seacoast, is the town of Badoc, with a popula- 
tion of 9,000. The principal town of the north is Bangin, with a 

1 Plates 2, 3, 4, and 5 will give some idea of the general aspect of the country in 
the extreme north of Luzon. They all come from the plantation owned by the 
Compania General de Tobacos, called San Antonio, situated not far from Tuguegamo. 



22 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

population of 6,177. The province has a total of L5 towns, situated 
generally at a short distance from the sea. about L19 tillages and 
hamlets, and r>-± hamlets of subjugated pagans. 

DIALECTS. 

Ilocano is spoken generally throughout the province, and the Tin- 
guianes, living in the hamlets near the principal towns, although they 

have their own dialects, understand and speak Ilocano. 

AGRICULTURE, INOl STRY, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

Wheat and other products of the temperate zone, especially vege- 
tables, can be cultivated in this province. In the mountains are found 
the best of the indigenous woods, and in the north, in the interior, the 
pine, the oak, and other similar woods are found. In the mountains. 
pitch, honey, and wax are found in abundance, also wild carabaos, 
boars, deer, and jungle fowl, pigeons, and many other kinds of birds. 
In all of the towns of the provinces rice of superior quality is grown; 
corn, a good quality of cotton, sugar cane, and a fair grade of tobacco 
are raised. In the town of Bangui a considerable amount of coffee 
and chocolate is grown. The men occupy themselves for the most 
part in agriculture, and the women in spinning and weaving, the 
town of Pasay being especially noted, as here are made the famous 
blankets of Ilocos. Horse raising is notable, as is also cattle raising. 
Fish are found in abundance in the rivers and along the coast. The 
soil lacks nothing in natural richness, abounding in iron. 

The province is traversed from north to south by an excellent high- 
way which crosses the towns of Bangui, the most northern, Xagpartian. 
Panguin, Bacarra, Laoag, San Nicolas. Batac, and Badoc. The road 
then runs into the province of South Ilocos. whose first town is Sinait. 
From tin 1 town of Batac a highway runs to Pasay. all situated to the 
west, and to tin 1 port of Currimao, tin 1 best in the province. From 
west to east, starting from tin 1 head town, is another highway which, 
after passing through the town of San Miguel, divides into two: one 
of these Leads to Piddig and Solsona and the other to Dingras and 
Banna. Another highway connects the principal town with tin 1 town 
of Vintar, from which it passes to Bacarra, there uniting with the 
main road from north, to south. 

SOUTH ILocos. 
BOUNDARIES VM> GENERAL CONDITION nv THE COUNTRY. 

This province IS bounded on the north by North Ilocos. on the south 
by Onion, on the east by Ahra and the districts of Tiagan and 
Lepanto, and on the west by the China Sea. li has a length of is 
leagues from north to south, and is about ."> leagues wide. The 
country is Hat rather than mountainous, and is separated from the 
province of Union by tin 1 Rio Grande de Amburayan. 

TOTAL AREA \M> POPULATION. 

It reaches in area L, 424 square kilometers, of which some 534 are 
under cultivation and about Too in forests. 'The Dumber oi inhabit- 
ants is more than 178,000, the greater part of these being Qocanos; 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 23 

there are some hamlets of Tinguianes, especially in the mountainous 
region. The Ilocanos are frank and active in character, which makes 
them greatly appreciated in all regions. 

TOWNS. 

The capital or head town, Vigan, founded by the intrepid Salcedo, was 
formerly called Villa Fernandino, and has a population of 12,000. The 
city is the Episcopal see of the Bishop of Nueva Segovia. It is situated 
near the river Abra, on the right bank, and not far from the coast. It 
has fine streets and a beautiful driveway, and many buildings of 
excellent construction, among these being the cathedral, the Episcopal 
palace, the seminary, the government house, the house of the tax 
department, the city hall, the normal school for girls, the native town 
hall, the barracks, the prison, and many other structures which aid in 
giving it the aspect of a city. 

The towns of greatest importance are Sinait, to the south of Bodoc, 
in North Ilocos, the most northern town, with a population of 7,209. 
Next, to the so nth, is Cabugao, with 9,000; Lapo, with 4,682; Magsin- 
gal, with 10,441; Santo Domingo, with 5,355; San Ildefonso, with 
8,361; San Vicente, with 4,000; Bantay, with 8,360, and Santa Cati- 
lina, with 8,737 inhabitants. Continuing farther to the south is found 
the largest city of the province, Narvacan, with 16,882 inhabitants; 
Santa Maria, with 11,720, and Candon, the third in population, with 
14,035 inhabitants. The most southern town, Tagudin, has a popula- 
tion of 7,864. All of these towns are situated near to the coast, and 
are named in their order of latitude from north to south. There is a 
total of 21 towns, 587 villages or hamlets, and 55 hamlets of subju- 
gated pagans. 1 

DIALECTS. 

Ilocano is generally spoken, Tinguian in some of the hamlets, and 
other dialects among the pagans of the mountains. 

PRODUCTS, AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF 

COMMUNICATION. 

Panorapin, palochina, casisguis, deran, banaba, aculao, °,nd busilis- 
ing are woods found in relative abundance. Of the 434 square kilo- 
meters under cultivation in the province, 36 are of the highest class. 
Of the land under cultivation, 282 square kilometers are in rice, 55 in 
corn, 1 in wheat, 34 in indigo, 29 in sugar cane, 2 in chocolate, 2 in 
the celebrated maguey fiber, 65 in vegetables, and 64 in peanuts. 

In regard to industry, it is sufficient to say that looms are found in 
every town, these being managed by the women, who weave cotton 
cloth for domestic use. The towns most noted for this industry are 
San Ildefonso, Bantay, Cavayan, and San Vincente. In the latter 
town are several furniture shops. In Vigan, the head town of this 
province, is a carriage shop, which manufactures carriages of all 
classes and prices. Almost all of the towns have one day of the 

( l ) Other pagans found in the province are Brisaos, Igorrotes, Quinanos, and 
Negritos, who are found in the mountains to the east, sharing the country with the 
ltetapanes, Mayoyaos, Sitipanes, and others. 



24 REPOBT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

week set apari as a market day. and on those days vegetables and 
fruits of the country, cloth of silk and cotton made in toe province, 
pottery, cloth made in China, and the various agricultural products of 
the province, arc boughl and sold. The articles of export are indigo, 
cocoanut, sugar, brown sugar, sweet potatoes, cotton, and the maguey 
liber. The imports are large quantities of rice, inasmuch as the pro- 
duction of this article in the province is not equal to the consumption; 
preserves from Europe, dried fish, iron (manufactured and unmanu- 
factured), oik alcohol, and indigo seed. 

The ways of communication, although they leave a great deal to he 
desired, are nevertheless the best in tin 4 archipelago; and as the Level 
part of the country comprises almost all the cultivated agricultural 
zone, all of the towns are well provided with roads throughout the 
country districts, which facilitate the transportation of the products 
of the country. Along the line of road which traverses the country 
from north to south between Yigan and Sinait there are bridges of 
wood and brick in good condition. From Vigan toward the south, as 
far as the boundary of the province of Union, gullies and rivers of 
little depth are lacking in bridges, and those carrying considerable water 
have during the dry season light bridges of wood and bamboo 
which are carried oil -by the first flood, the passage of the river from 
that time being made on rafts made from bamboo. Salomague, to the 
north of the Bay of Masingat and the Bay of Lapuag, is a port of 
some importance. 

NEAKEST ISLANDS. 

The nearest islands of importance are Pinget and Salomague. Tin- 
get, situated near and to the northwest of Point Santo Domingo, is 
very low. covered with forests, has beaches of sand, and is surrounded 
with reefs which are very precipitous on the west, inasmuch as less 
than half a mile distant the water is more than 50 meters dee]). This 
point and island form a small anchorage, to which there i^ but one 
entrance on the 4 south, as the coast to the north is surrounded by rind's, 
which almost unite with the coast on the east of the island, and would 
be very difficult to avoid. 

SALOMAGUE. 

At approximately a distance of 1 mile to t ho northwest of the point 

north of the port of this name there is an island o\' moderate height 
surrounded by a reef which extends scarcely a cable's length ' to the 
southwest and forms with the coast a passage in which there is a depth 
of from 28 to 30 meters in the center, surrounded on both sides by a 
reef which starts 2 cables' length from the coast in the middle of the 
island. 

COM Wl'W'l \s DE TIAGAN. 

This comandancia is situated between Ahra. Amburayan. Lepanix>, 
and South [locos. It has 7,793 inhabitants, divided among 25 hamlets 
and .'.:; villages. The principal town is San Emilio, with a population 
of L,658. 



1 A cable equals 120 fathoms. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 25 

PRODUCTS. 

The Igorrotes of the mountains and the tribes called Buric and 
Busao cultivate rice, coffee, chocolate, corn, sugar cane, sweet pota- 
toes, cotton, and vegetables. Industry is limited to the weaving of 
cloth and the making of baskets, hats, cardcases, and pipes. 

COMANDANCIA OF AMBURAYAN 

is bounded on the north by Tiagan and South Ilocos, on the south by 
Union, on the east by Lepanto, and on the west by the province of 
South Ilocos and Union. The population is made up of 30,000 pagans, 
mostly Igorrotes, and 150 Christians, distributed among 31 towns and 
76 hamlets. The town of most importance is Alilem, the capital. 
Cancanay and Tinginan are the languages spoken. The other towns 
are Luyo and Cabacan. 

INDUSTRIES. 

Limited to the making of cotton cloth and other articles used by 
these pagans. 

PROVINCE OF ABRA. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

This province takes its name from the large river which runs through 
its center. It is bounded on the north by North Ilocos, on the east by 
Cagayan and Isabela, on the west by South Ilocos, and on the south 
by Bontoc and Lepanto. From north to south it is about 20 
leagues in length, and from east to west about 8. The entire 
province is very rugged, and is crossed in every direction by small 
mountain chains. Its vegetation is robust and vigorous, and the 
mountains are covered with forests of large trees, some noted for their 
size, others for the firmness and hardness of their woods, and almost 
all of them for their exquisite fruits. The country is volcanic in 
general, with silicious rocks and alluvial deposits. 

AREA AND POPULATION. 

It has an area of 2,837 square kilometers and a population of 
11,300, according to the civil census. In the mountains are found 
some Negritos and Guinaanes. The greater part of the province is 
occupied by Tinguianes. Most of the civilized inhabitants are Iloca- 
nos. There are likewise about 2,000 Igorrotes. 1 

TOWNS. 

The principal town is Bangued, on the left bank of the river Abra, 
toward the west of the province, which has a population of 13,500. 
This town is situated about four hours 1 drive from Vigan. Tayum, to 
the east of Bangued, has 11,237 inhabitants. Bucav, also on the left 

1 We judge that the modern opinion of certain ethnogrophists is correct that the 
word " Igorrote" is not a generic name for various races, but rather for one special 
race, and it is with this understanding that we use it. 



26 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

hank of the river, has £,995; Villavieja, in the southern part of the 
province, 2,331; La Paz, to the north of Tayum, 2,000; Pidigan, to 
the southwest of Bangued, on the lefl hank of the river, 2,295; San 
Gregorio, between La Paz and Tavum, 3,262. There us a total of 11 
towns and 30 villages. 

LANGUAGES. 

The llocano language is generally spoken in the towns, and the 
[gorrote language in certain villages. The other pagans speak their 
respective dialects, Tinginan, Basiao, and Guinnan. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY. AND COMMERCE. 

Agriculture is well advanced, considering the area under cultivation, 
some 4:3 square kilometers, and the limited number of laborers obtain- 
able. The principal products are tobacco, rice. corn, of which three 
crops are harvested each year, sugar cane, and vegetables. ( )n the tops 
of the mountain ranges are found the pine, oak. strawberry tree, and 
other trees of the temperate zone. The above-mentioned products. 
together with cotton, which is now cultivated, rattan, honey, and wax 
constitute the principal articles of export. It should he added that 
prospecting for mines of copper in the region of Gambang, between 
Vigan and Bangued, and for coal, of which there are indications near 
the village of Pagano toward the east, toward the village of La Paz. 
and iron pyrites, found in various situations, promises returns. Large 
game, such as buffalo, boars, and deer is abundant in the mountains, and 
the number of species of monkeys inhabiting the various islands is 
almost innumerable. The only industry is the weaving of cotton cloth 
of various kinds, many of these being notable for their firmness, even- 
ness, and durability. The towns are muted by various roads, suitable 
for animals, which likewise connect this province with Lepanto, 
Cagayan, aid South Ilocos. 

COMANDANCLA OF BONTOC. 

BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

ll is bounded on the north by [sabela, on the south by Lepanto, on 
the east by the district of Principe ami Nueva Viscaya, and on the 
west by Abra. It measures from north to south some 50 kilometers, 
and from east to west 27. The country LS mountainous and not very 
fertile, probably ^\' volcanic nature; the climate is temperate and 
humid. 

m;i \ \\D INHABITANTS. 

It measures L, 322 square kilometers and has 13,985 inhabitants reg- 
istered in the civil census. Of the pagan inhabitants some are [fugaos, 
others [gorrotes and Busaos; there are also Ltetapanes, Calingas, Gad- 
da lies, and Dayadas. Some a lit bors, ill consideration ^\' the number of 

race- scattered over this territory, place the total number of inhabit- 
ants at 82,500. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 27 

TOWNS. 

The most important and almost the only town is the head town, hav- 
ing the same name as the province. It has a population of 10,751. 
The villages of Sagasa, Sacasacan, and Basao, recently organized, are 
worthy of mention. 

LANGUAGES. 

Ilocano, Sunim and Itetapan, lgorrote, and other analogous dialects 
are spoken. 

PRODUCTS AND COMMERCE. 

The only cultivated lands lie along the banks of the river. The only 
industry of the few pagans is the manufacture of salt from the springs 
of Mainit, to the southeast of Bontoc. The water of these springs 
is clear, hot, without odor, and salty. In Dalican, to the west of 
Bontoc, there is an abundance of iron pyrites; and at Tanolo there 
is a bed of ore supposed to be argentiferous galena. There is no 
commerce. 

PROVINCE OF ISABELA AND THE COMANDANCIAS OF SALTAN AND 

LLAVAC. 

BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

It is bounded on the north by Cagayan and Itaves, on the south by 
Nueva Viscaya and Principe, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, and on the 
west by Lepanto, Bontoc, and Abra. The country is covered from 
north to south by the Rio Grande de Cagayan, and from southwest to 
northeast by its large tributary, the Magat. The eastern zone, along 
the coast of . the Pacific, is mountainous and rugged, as through it, 
running from north to south, is the Sierra Madre Range. The zone 
which extends from the west of the Sierra Madre Mountains is very 
extensive, and presents plains and valleys fertilized by the Rio Grande 
and the Magat. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

It measures about 14,234 square kilometers, and is the largest prov- 
ince in Luzon. It has 18,302 registered inhabitants. In some of the 
eastern mountains Negritos are found. The other pagan inhabitants 
are of various races. Igorrotes, Togades, who live between Echagiie 
and Angadanan, Gaddanes, Mayaoaos, Ilongotes or Ibilaos, Bujuanes, 
Silipianes, Binanganes, Bunginanes, the Isanayas, the Ilongotes, the 
Buay as, who inhabit the Defim country, and the Catalanganes. Among 
the civilized Indians there are a great man}^ Tagalogs. This is prob- 
ably the province in which there is the largest number of pagan races. 1 

TOWNS. 

The principal town is Ilagan, the capital, about the center of the 
province, situated on an elevation and surrounded by the Rio Grande 
de Cagayan and Pinacananan rivers. The climate is temperate and 

1 Plate 7 shows a group of native laborers on the Santa Isabel plantation. 
p c — vol 3 — 01 3 



28 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

mild. This town has been several times destroyed by fire. It has a 
population of L3,049 and is a twenty-four hours 5 drive from Aparri. 
Cabagan Viejo and Cabagan Nueva are situated in the north of the prov- 
ince on the right hank of the Rio Grande, and have a population of 9,000. 

Following the light hank of the Rio Grande toward the south the 
following towns are found: Balasag and Tumauini. the ancient capital, 
with 4,500 inhabitants: Gamu, to the south of Iligan and on the left 
bank of the river, with 5,320; Canayan, 2.167: Angadanan. 3,900; 
Echague, 6,633, and Carig, between the Rio Grande and the Magat, 
with 2,651, There are 22 towns, 25 villages or hamlets, and 38 villages 
of conquered pagans. 

LANGUAGES. 

Ilocano, Ibanag, Cagayan, Gaddan, and Tagalog are spoken. 

PRODUCTS, AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF 

COMMUNICATION. 

Rice, sugar cane, chocolate, and coffee grow almost without the care 
of the planter; it being about the same with all kinds of vegetables, 
which in flavor and size can compete with those of Spain. But all this 
production does not meet the necessities of the inhabitants, because the 
area under cultivation is small. The corn crop is the object of consid- 
erable care on the part of the natives, because when rice becomes high 
it constitutes the principal food supply. The principal and most 
important product is tobacco, which is gathered in large quantities and 
is considered the best in the Philippines. It is the principal article of 
export and constitutes the wealth of the country. A few cattle 1 are 
raised. The forests, for the great part unexplored, are rich in valuable 
woods suitable for the manufacture of furniture. There is an abun- 
dance of molave, ipil, narra, cam agon, and other excellent woods for 
building. There are but two ways of communication with the interior, 
that afforded by the Rio Grande, and the cart road which runs from 
north to south through the center of the province. 

COM AN DA NCI A DE SALTAN. 

This comandancia takes its name from the branch of the Rio Chico de 
Cagayan, and extends along the bend which this river forms in the 
comandancia of Bontoc. The inhabitants Dumber about 14,000, 
mostly pagans and subjugated (Jaddanes, who speak the Ibanag and 
Gaddan, the Yaga, and the Iraya languages. 

com wdwci \ DE I.I. A\ AC 

This military comandancia was Located in the Province o\' Isabela 
with the object of restraining the inroads of the [gorrotes and other 
pagans. 



1 Bee plate 8, \\ lii-'li represents one <>! the Btock forma <>t" the Compania General de 
Tobacos, on Santa Isabel plantation. 



REPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 29 

COMANDANCIAS OF LEPANTO AND QUIANGAN. 

BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY. 

It is hounded on the north by Abra and Bontoc, on the south by 
Benguet and Nueva Viscaya, on the east by Bontoc and Quiangan, and 
on the west by Tiagan and Amburayan. It measures from north to 
south 55 kilometers and from east to west 49. The country is 
mountainous. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

It has an area of 2,167 square kilometers, and is occupied by vari- 
ous races. 1 There are 16,152 registered inhabitants of various races, 
Ifugaos and the Busaos Igorrotes being the most numerous. 

TOWNS. 

The principal towns are Cervantes, the capital, situated in the center 
of the district, about twelve hours' drive from Vigan, Cay an, the old 
capital, to the northeast, and ver}^ near Cervantes, and Mancayan, to 
the southeast of the capital, famous for its copper mines. There is a 
total of five towns and 40 villages. 

LANGUAGES. 

Ilocano, Cataoan, Igorrote, Ifugao, and other dialects are spoken. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE. 

This district has about TO square kilometers, cultivated by a few 
Indians and 8,000 Igorrotes. The products are rice, tobacco, sugar 
cane, and a small amount of corn and garden stuff. In the forest there 
is an abundance of molave, banaba, pine, oak, sabine, elm, strawberry 
trees, cedar, and casilang. At one time the mines of Mancayan were 
in operation, producing annually more than 4,000 quintals of fine 
copper. A road starting from Vigan crosses the district from north- 
west to southeast, uniting the towns of Tiagan, Lepanto, Cervantes, 
and Mancayan, facilitating importation and exportation. 

COMANDANCTA DE QUIANGAN. 

This comandancia is bounded on the north by Bontoc, on the south 
by Nueva Viscaya, on the east by Nueva Viscaya and Isabela, and on 
the west by Lepanto. It has an area of about 80 square kilometers, 
and a population of about 30,000, divided among a multitude of hamlets, 
of which at least 218 are known. The principal town is Quiangan, 
situated in the valley of the same name, which runs from north to 
south from Lepanto to Nueva Visca}^a, following along the river 
Abulao, a branch of the river Magat. Other important towns are 
Magulang, Nangaoa, Lagani, Sapao, and Bonaue. 



1 The general records of the Augustinian order for 1897 give 21,745 inhabitants, and, 
according to the same records, the most recent population of Saabangan is 10,085. 



30 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

PROVINCE OF UNION. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY. 

This province is bounded on the north b}^ South Ilocos, on the south 
by Pangasinan, on the east by Lepanto and Benguet, and on the west 
by the China Sea. It is 16 leagues in length from north to south, and 
5 in width from east to west. The country is flat along the coast and 
very mountainous a short distance from the sea. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

It has an area of 2,008 square kilometers, and is inhabited bv 110,161 
registered people, belonging for the most part to the Ilocos and Pan- 
gasinan races. There are many villages of Igorrotes in the mountains. 

TOWNS. 

The principal town is the capital, San Fernando, situated near the 
port of the same name, which has a population of 11,542. Bangar, the 
most northern town, has a population of 10,700. From Bangar, going- 
southward, the following towns are found: Mamacpacan, with a popu- 
lation of 10,000; Bacnotan, with 8,311; San Juan, with 11,189; Baoang, 
with 9,079; Caba, with 3,319; Agoo, with more than 11,000; Santo 
Tomas and Rosario, with 8,507. There is a total of 11 towns, 210 
villages and hamlets, and a multitude of little hamlets within the 
jurisdiction of Christian towns. 

LANGUAGES. 

Ilocano and Pangasinan are spoken and, in the mountains, various 
Igorrote dialects. 

PRODUCTS, AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE. 

The mountains produce a large quantity of sebucao. The cultivated 
area, 64 square kilometers, is in the care of 45,000 people. The prod- 
ucts are tobacco, rice, corn, cotton, sugar cane, chocolate, fruits, and 
farinacious roots. There are about 47,800 live stock in the province ; 
21,200 carabaos, 8,200 cattle, and 5,500 horses. A carriage road in fair 
condition runs parallel to the coast, and unites all of the towns above 
mentioned with one another, and with south Ilocos by way of Tagudin, 
and with Pangasinan by way of San Fabian, from which point Manila 
mav be reached by carriage. 

COMANDANCIA OF BENGUET. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY. 

This is an interior comandancia in the province of Union. It is 
bounded on the north by Lepanto and Union, on the south by Pan- 
gasinan, on the east by Nueva Viscaya and Lepanto, and on the west 
by Union. The country is mountainous and hemmed in between the 
olfshoots of the great Caraballo chain. The altitude and mountainous 
character of the country aid in giving it a climate somewhat like that 
of the temperate zone. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 31 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

It has an area of 24 square kilometers. There are 15,734 registered 
inhabitants, the greater number of these living in the mountains. The 
number of Christian inhabitants does not exceed L,000. Tlie pagans 
are mostly Igorrotes, called Benquetanos. 

TOWNS. 

The principal town is the capital, called La Trinidad, with a popula- 
tion of 2,980. It is a new and picturesque place, situated in a beautiful 
and extensive plain, not far from a small lake some 5 kilometers in 
circumference. Other important towns are Galiano, to the west of 
La Trinidad, having a very fertile and productive soil; Agno and 
Taquian, celebrated for their excellent potatoes, equal to those of 
Europe, and their beans; Carao, where bags and hats are manufactured; 
Tavio, Sudab, and Bagnio, where mines are found. 

LANGUAGES. 

The Catholic inhabitants speak Ilocano, and the Igorrotes, although 
they speak Benguetano, understand and speak the Ilocano language. 

PRODUCTS, AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OE 

COMMUNICATION. 

There are extensive areas of pine lands, and in the forests oak, 
camagon, and narra. The rush, from whose pith the Chinese manu- 
facture the wicks for cocoanut-oil lamps, known in the Philippines as 
" tinisn," grows in great abundance. Gigantic ferns are found here. 
Potatoes, beans, and other vegetables grown here are quite equal to those 
produced in the temperate zone. Wheat and chicpeas are produced. 
In the mountains are found sarsaparilla, wild mulberry, and even 
strawberries. The pineapples, mangoes, and bananas are of excellent 
quality. 

PROVINCE OF NUEVA VISCAYA. 

BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY. 

This province is bounded on the north and east by Lepanto, Bontoc, 
Quiangan, Isabela, and Principe, on the south by Nueva Ecija and 
Pangasinan, and on the west by Pangasinan and Benguet. From 
north to south it is 17 leagues in length, and from east to west 8 
leagues in width. The country is in general mountainous. On tin 1 south 
is the South Caraballo Range, The province is crossed almost from 
southwest to northeast by the river Magat, which fertilizes the great 
central valley. This flat and cultivated valley is almost all under 
irrigation. The eastern bank of the Magat is of sand v soil, the west- 
ern being clayey and the most productive. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

It has an area of 4,384 square kilometers, inhabited hy L9,379 regis- 
tered people. The pagans are very numerous, in tin 1 mountains of the 
north there being no less than L2,000 Igorrotes. The Tinguanes, who 



32 REPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

inhabit the northeast, a very small part of whom have been subjugated, 
are estimated to number 13,000. The Ilongotes or Ibilaos number not 
less than 4,000; and finally the Isinayas, who inhabit the country to 
the west and south, are divided amongst 14 villages and number not 
less than 10,000. 

TOWNS. 

The principal town, Bayombong, on the left bank of the Magat, ha ; 
a population of 3,550. Almost all the towns of greatest importance 
are found in the great valley of the Magat. Commencing with the 
most northern, they are in the following order: Diadi, somewhat 
distant from the right bank, has a population of 2,114; Bagabag, on 
the left bank, 1,600; Ibung, to the west of Bagabag, 1,097; Salano, on 
the left bank, to the north of Bayombong, 4,411; Bambang, to the 
right of the river, 3,000; Dupax, to the south of Bambang, 3,000; 
and finally Aritao, to the west of Dupax and on the opposite bank of 
the adjacent branch, the Minoli, 1,000. 

LANGUAGES. 

The following languages are spoken: Gaddan, Isinay, Ilongote or 
Ibilao, and the languages of the various races of Ifugaos, who inhabit 
the country between Solano and the great central chain. 

PRODUCTS, AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COM- 
MUNICATION. 

Rice is almost the only crop harvested. The soil also produces sugar 
cane, chocolate, coffee, and tobacco, but of an inferior quality, and in 
quantity insufficient to meet the needs of the inhabitants. The woods 
in the forest are of excellent quality, prominent among them being 
narra, molave, canutan, and baticulan. These are difficult to export 
on account of the character of the country. Resins and gums are also 
found, but they are not gathered. Fine stone quarries exist. Game 
is abundant. There is scarcely any industry worthy of mention. 
There is but little commerce, on account of the difficulty of communi- 
cating with the exterior. In the interior there is a fair carriage road, 
which unites the towns above mentioned with one another. This 
road is well cared for and permits of the passage of carriages during 
the year, except in the rainy season, when, on account of Hoods and 
the difficulty of managing the rafts because of the strong currents in 
the river, Bayombong, Dupax, and Aritao can not communicate with 
each other. The capital, Solano, and Bagabag have open communica- 
tion even during the rainy season, because the above difficulties do not 
exist. 

COMANDANCIA DE CAYAPA. 

This comandancia is situated along the slopes of the River Ambay- 
anan, near the province of Nueva Viscaya. Its area is about 660 
square kilometers. It is inhabited by various races of the pagan 
Ifugaos. The towns are San Miguel Arcangel, with a population of 
2,249, and Santa Cruz de Ana. 



REPORT OK THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 33 

DISTRICT OR COMANDANCIA OF PRINCIPE. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE (OLNTRY. 

It is bounded on the north by Nueva Viscaya and Isabela, on the 
south by Infanta, on the (Mist by the Pacific Ocean, and on the west 
by Nueva Viscaya, from which it is separated by the South Cara hallo 
Range. The country is an uninterrupted succession of lofty moun- 
tains, all inaccessible and covered with dense vegetation. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

It has an area of 3,051 square kilometers and 4,100 registered 
inhabitants. The greater part of the pagans are Ilongotes, with some 
Negritos. The savage and traitorous Italones, descendants of the 
Ilongotes, live in the northern part. 

TOWNS. 

The head town is Baler, situated on level, muddy ground; it has 
2,100 inhabitants. The Bay of Baler is large and wide. Casiguran 
has 1,800 inhabitants, and Carignan 200. The Bay of Casiguran is one 
of the most sheltered of Luzon. Dilasag is a little town near the bay 
of the first name. It is situated to the north, between the Sierra Madre 
Mountains and the boundary of Isabela. There is a total of four towns 
and a number of pagan hamlets. 

LANGUAGES. 

The civilized inhabitants speak Tagalog and Ilocano; the pagans 
Ilongote. 

PRODUCTS, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

In the vicinity of the towns rice, corn, sweet potatoes, vegetables 
and fruits are cultivated. But little coffee, cotton, sugar cane, tobacco, 
and chocolate are raised, probably because of lack of communication 
with the exterior. This difficulty, together with the natural indolence 
of the inhabitants, accounts for the existence of immense virgin forests 
which might become excellent land for cultivation. The forest woods 
are of excellent quality and in abundance. Among these are bati- 
culin, banaba, catmon, yellow narra, tuyad, and others. Although no 
scientific exploration has been made in this country, there is reason to 
believe that gold and copper mines and deposits of' crystallized quartz 
exist. Along the coast fish are found in prodigious abundance, and in 
the Bay of Casiguran during the north monsoon hundreds of tons of 
fish are caught. The inhabitants, especially those 1 of Baler, are very 
fond of hunting, game being most abundant. There is almost no com- 
merce, merely the exchange of food stuffs between the pagans of the 
mountains and the subjugated natives and Christians. Hie ways of 
communication with other provinces are very scarce. On land there 
are a few poor paths, which with the 4 greatest difficulty can be trav- 
eled on horse back or in hammocks. Ships never visit the coast 
regularly, on account of lack of trade, and during the north and east 
monsoon navigation in small boats is most dangerous. 



34 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



COMANDANCTA OF BINATANGAN. 

It is bounded north by Isabela, on the east by the district of Prin- 
cipe, on the south by Nueva Ecija, and on the west by Nueva Viscaya. 
It is composed of villages of Ilongotes (Italones or Lbilaos) and sonic 
wandering Negritos. There are about 6,000 pagans and less than 370 
Christians in the district 

LANGUAGES. 

Ilongote is generally spoken by the pagans and Ilocano and Taga- 
log by the Christians. In the town of Munquia there are 4-. L82 inhab- 
itants, counting Christians and subjugated pagans. 

ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

To the south of Point Encanta, in the Bay of Baler, between Points 
Dimayabay and Dicapinisan, is situated the small island and point of 
Distoring and several smaller islands. Between Point Encanto and 
the mouth of the river, near Baler, there is found a series of little 
islands running almost parallel with the coast; thev are called "Los 
Confites." 



CHAPTER III. 

CENTEK OF JTITZO^ (A). 

[Maps Nos. 8 and 12 of the Atlas of the Philippines.] 

PROVINCE OF ZAMBALES. 

BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY. 

This province is situated on the west coast and in the widest part of 
Luzon. It is bounded on the north, northwest, and west by the China 
Sea, on the south by the province of Bataan, and on the west by the 
provinces of Pangasinan, Tarlac, and Pampanga. It is 32 leagues long 
and 7 wide. The country is mountainous and generally covered with 
vegetation. The low lands are fertile and almost the only ones culti- 
vated. The coast is not clear, on account of the many stones and rocks 
and the abundance of reefs and banks. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

It has an area of 2,229 square kilometers and 87,295 registered 
inhabitants. The pagan inhabitants are revengeful and warlike, inhab- 
iting the mountains. The rest of the inhabitants are almost all of the 
Zambal race, including those called the Igorrotes of Zambales, or the 
savages of Zambales. 

TOWNS. 

Iba, the capital town, is situated on the left bank and 2i miles from 
the river, which bounds it on the western side on the level plain. It 
has a population of 3,060, occupied principally in the cultivation of 
the soil, in hunting, fishing, and the raising of animals, such as cattle, 
carabaos, horses, and hogs. Some of the inhabitants and some of the 
people along the coast are occupied in the collection ot amber, which 
is usually found along the coast. The most important towns, begin- 
ning with those of the north, are: Bolinao, with 6,200 inhabitants (the 
light-house and semaphore, of the first class, are situated on the cape 
near this town); Alaminos, near the coast of the ba} T of Ling^iyen, has 
8,202 inhabitants; Bani has 4,295; Agno, 5,294; Santa Cruz, 5,319; 
Masinloo, 2,847; Botalan and San Felipe, 5,000; San Narciso, 7,600; 
San Antonio, about 4,668. In the magnificent port of Subig, one of 
the best in the archipelago, are situated the towns of Subig and 
Olonagapo. The total number of towns is 25, not counting the numer- 
ous hamlets of pagans. Besides the port of Subig there are several 
ports of some importance along the coast of Zambales. 

LANGUAGES. 

Zambal and Ilocano are spoken in the southern part, and Zambal, 
Ilocano, and Tagalog in the northern part. In the region of Iba and 
Batolan, Zambal and Pampanga are used, and in the region between 

35 



36 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Alaminos and Bolincaguin, Ilocano and Pangasinan. The Negritos 
speak Aeta, but have some understanding of the most common lan- 
guages of the province, such as Zambal and Ilocano. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

Besides the products common to Luzon, the province furnishes a 
largo quantity of building material, which is abundant in the province 
and would form a part of its wealth if the ways of communication were 
bettor. It produces also pitch, resins, rattan, honey, wax. and amber, 
which is collected along the shores. Wheat is grown, and excellent 
rice, in large quantities. In the mountains sweet pineapple is grown. 
which in quality compares well with that of Java and Singapore. So 
many cattle are raised that with suitable means of communication they 
would be sufficient to furnish meat for all of Luzon. There is no lack 
of mineral springs, the most notable ones being those of Iba. Dosol, 
Polanig, and Subig. There are mines of copper and pit coal, some of 
importance in Agno, and between Balincaguin and San Isidro. 

Industries are few. In some towns there are wood-working indus- 
tries, and in others iron mills. Ways of communication in this province 
are very poor, and those that exist are almost impassable during the rainy 
season. There is a road from Bolinao parallel to the coast as far as 
Moron, in the province of Bataan, passing through all of the towns 
which are situated near the sea as far as San Narciso, from which point 
it crosses the province from northwest to southeast to Moron. This 
road branches at Botolan to O'Donnell, in Tarlac, and from Agno to 
Alaminos and Sual and San Isidro, in Pangasinan, passing through 
Balincaguin. 

ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

Within the port of Subig, near to the entrance of the bay. is Isla 
Grande or Pulo Malaqui. It is of medium height, covered with trees, 
and surrounded by reefs and shoals. To the south of this island is a 
smaller one, to which it is united by a sand spit and roof. Entirely 
within the Bay of Subig are the Mayanga and Monti islands. On 
leaving the Bay of Subig. toward the north are found the islands 
called Frailes, which are six rocks close together, and among them 
the Tabones, Lajos, and Capones Islands, where a light-house is situ- 
ated, almost directly west of San Antonio. From the Capones, as far 
as the Bay of Masinloc. there is no island found worthy of mention. 
Within the Bay of Masinloc is tin 1 Salvador Island, of medium height. 
covered with trees, and distinguishable at some distance from the port; 
also Luan Island, near Salvador Malacaba, an island of circular form; 
Mataloi Island, of medium height, covered with trees and surrounded 
by mangroves, and the Island o\' Pulapir. surrounded with reefs. 
From the Bay of Masinloc toward the north are found, first, Putipot; 
then Ilerniana Menor. or Macaliza, an island of about a mile in diame- 
ter, low. and covered with trees. Then Hermans Mayor, some 3 
miles to the nort h-nort Invest of the Lesser Culebra Island, and the 
little island Raton are found, respectively, to the north, one-fourth 
northwest, and to the east of Ilerniana Mayor in the Hay <A Donsol. 

Northeast of Cap* 1 Bolinao is the Little island o{ Silaqui. South- 
southeast of this is Santiago, an island surrounded by reefs and rocks: 
it is of about medium height. Its inhabitants are almost all united in 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 37 

the town of Binabalian, which looks toward the port of Bolinao. To 
the south of Santiago is found the well-populated island of Cabar- 
ruyan. Anda, its chief town, has a population of 3,200. The island 
is quite high and covered with forests. Between Santiago and Cabar- 
ruyan are several small islands of little importance, all surrounded by 
banks and reefs of coral. Near to the southeastern extremity of the 
large island of Cabarnryan is a group of small, round, high islands, 
covered with vegetation, called Cien Mas, Mongosmongos, and 
Capulupuluam. To the west of this group is Comas Island, and to 
the south of this Cabalitian. 

PROVINCE OF PANGASINAN. 
BOUNDARIES AXD GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

This province is bounded on the north by the Gulf of Langayen and 
the provinces of Union and Benguet, on the northeast by Nueva Vis- 
ca} 7 a, on the southeast by Tarlac and Nueva Ecija, and on the west by 
Zam Dales. The country is mountainous on the west, northeast, and 
east, flat toward the central and southern part, in the vicinity of the 
River Agno. The country generally slopes from the mountains to the 
sea in easy undulations, and near the coast is very low, thus giving 
rise to frequent floods, because, on account of the flatness of the 
country, the rivers during abundant rains are unable to empty them- 
selves. The soil is fertile and favorable for the growth of all products. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

It has an area of 2,854 square kilometers, inhabited by 302,178 
people, the greater part of whom belong to the Pangasinan race. Some 
wandering Negritos live in the mountains which separate this province 
from Zambales. There are also some Ilocanos in the province, and 
along the boundary to the northeast and east a few Igorrotes. 

TOWNS. 

The capital is Langa\ T em, with a population of 14,120. It has a fine 
church and a large number of well-constructed buildings. Sual, a sea- 
port on the western coast of the bay of Langayen, has a population of 
3,000; San Fabian, on the western coast of the bay, 10,200; Mangaldan, 
to the south of San Fabian, about 15,600; Dagupan, a seaport, 16,691; 
Binmale}^, likewise a port, 16,100; Calasiao, to the southeast of Dagu- 
pan, 13,800; San Carlos, 23,931; Malasiqui, 10,770; Urdaneta, 16,600; 
Mangatarem, 11,000; Urbiztondo and Bayambang, to the south of 
Malasiqui, 5,278 and 11,111, respectively. There are other towns of 
more than 6,000 inhabitants too numerous to mention. The total num- 
ber of towns is 29 and of villages 361. 

LANGUAGES. 

Pangasinan is generally spoken. In some towns in the north, north- 
east, and southeast Ilocano is spoken. The Negritos speak Aeta, but 
understand Pangasinan, as do the Igorrotes who trade with the 
inhabitants. 



38 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

Rico is most extensively cultivated and is harvested in abundance, not- 
withstanding the fact that in certain years there is a total loss of the 
crop in some low-lying towns on account of floods. Sugarcane, corn. 
tobacco, and cocoanuts are cultivated. The production of indigo, cof- 
fee, and chocolate is insignificant, although the natural conditions for 
the production of the first of these are superior. But few provinces 
have more extensive areas covered with the nipapalm than has Panga- 
sinan, and probably not one has them in such a pitiable condition of 
neglect, notwithstanding the importance of this product to the native 
and the acknowledged danger to health which its neglect involves. 
This abundance of the nipa gives origin to the trade of distillation for 
obtaining alcohol. The industry is but small and at the present time 
is much neglected. Another industry which is carried on on a small 
scale is that of the weaving of buri, from which sleeping mats, hats, 
sacks, etc., are made. The delicacy of the work required in the manu- 
facture of these articles and the firmness of texture are truly admira- 
ble. The industries which are without doubt of greatest importance 
are the production of rice, wines, and sugar. Commerce, wholesale 
and retail, is carried on by the Chinese, as in the rest of the archipel- 
ago, and this industry necessitates the employment of a large number 
of small boats engaged in transportation. The province of Pan ga- 
sman is rich in gum. In its forests are an abundance of woods, some of 
very fine quality and useful for the construction of ships, as is shown 
in the small boats constructed there, which, according to the best opin- 
ion, are most seaworthy. This province is not less favored by nature 
in the matter of minerals. Common salt is so abundant that it has 
given its name to the province, as "Pangasinan" signifies the place 
where salt is made. Gold and copper are obtained by the Igorrotes, 
who market these products in the towns. 

The railroad from Manila to Dagupan traverses this province, pac- 
ing through the important towns of Bayambang, Malasiqui, Sun 
( arlos, Calasiao, and Dagupan. Roads traverse the province in all 
directions and unite tin 1 towns with each other and with Xueva Kcija 
by way of San Quintin, with Union by way of San Fabian and Santo 
Tomas, with Tarlac by way of Paniqui and Bayatin, and finally with 
Zambales by way of Sual and Alos. 

PROVINCE OF NUEVA ECIJA. 

BOUNDARIES AM) GENERAL conditions OF THE PROVHN i: 

The province of Xueva Ecija is bounded on the north bv the province 
of Nueva Viscaya and tin 4 district or comandancia of Principe, on the 
south by the provinces of Bulacan and Morong, on the east by the 
Pacific and the district of Infanta, and on the west by the provinces 
of Pampanga, 'Tarlac. and Pangasinan. Tin 4 country is somewhat 
broken, and all is fertile, making it suitable to the cultivation of all 
kinds of products on account of the great variety o\' mountains and 
plains. 

\KKA AND I Ml \HIT\\i\ 

It has an area <>( 6,610 square kilometers, Inhabited by 1.56,610 
registered people. Both the civilized and pagan inhabitants are of 
various races. Among the former the greater part are Tagalog, 




P c— VOL 3—01 -i 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 39 

especially in the southern part; toward the north and northeast there 
are a great many Pangasinanes and Ilocanos; in the west, a large 
number of Pampangos. The pagans, not registered, inhabit the central 
part of the heights of the Caraballo Mountains, and are Igorrotes, 
Balugas or Negritos, Ibilaos or Ilongotes. 

TOWNS. 

The head town is San Isidro, situated on the right bank of the Rio 
Grande de Pampanga, and has a population of 6,900; it has a good 
church and some well-built houses. Commencing on the north, the 
towns of most importance are as follows: San Quintin, near the Panga- 
sinan boundary, with a population of 6,892; Carranglan, near the source 
of the Rio Grande de Pampanga, 1,000; Viningan, to the south of San 
Quintin, 8,502; Rosales, to the west of Viningan, 5,016; Pantabangan, 
to the southeast of Carranglan, 1,200; Cuyapo, to the south of Rosales, 
16,325; Bongabon, on the left bank of the Rio Grande, 5,707; Talavera, 
to the west of Bongabon, 7,400; Cabanatuan, to the south of Talavera, 
near the left bank of the Rio Grande, 11,500; Aliaga, to the west of 
Cabanatuan, 23,890; Taen, a short distance from San Isidro, toward 
the northeast, 5,524; Gapan, east of San Isidro, 20,000 (the largest 
town of the province, famous for the excellent quality of the tobacco 
which is grown in the vicinity); San Antonio, west of San Isidro, 
7,000; Penaranda, northeast of Gapan, 5,600; Cabiao, toward the 
south, on the left bank of the Rio Grande, 8,000. There is a total of 
25 towns and 118 villages. Many of the pagans who dwell in the 
mountains are absolutely independent, without any sort of civil control. 

LANGUAGES. 

In the south Tagalog is spoken; in the north and northwest Pangasi- 
nan and Ilocano; in the west Pampango and Pangasinan, although 
Ilocano and Tagalog are somewhat known. The pagans speak their 
respective languages, and only those who trade with the Christian 
natives understand Tagalog, or Ilocano, or Pangasinan. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

The waters diverted from the mountains form a multitude of creeks, 
which b}^ themselves, and united in large rivers, such as the Coronel 
Grande, Chico, Managsac, etc. , flood during their frequent overflows and 
fertilize the fields with the mud brought down by their currents. The 
soil is fertile and well suited to the cultivation of the best and richest 
products of the country. In the central part and to the south rice 
is raised in abundance, more than 500,000 ca vanes being exported 
annually. This constitutes the principal product; also large quantities 
of corn are raised. Along the river banks tobacco is cultivated, 
although in less quantity than formerly, on account of the deprecia- 
tion in price which the renowned tobacco of Gapan has suffered since 
the monopoly, although it has the highest price among the natives. 
Sugar cane is easily produced, and some plantations, where its culti- 
vation is of genuine importance, are provided with steam machinery 
for manufacturing and refining, and with stills for the extraction of 
alcohol. 



40 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

In the north there arc some magnificent Lands under irrigation, 
where riee is cultivated; others are suitable for ehoeolate arid coffee, 
the tine quality of the latter being shown by that which is gathered in 
the village of Mariquit; and, finally, in the central part of the province, 
there are magnificent grazing lands, where the greater part of the 
cattle, which constitute the peculiar wealth of the province, are pas- 
tured. Along the Pacific coast hemp grows spontaneously in abundance 
and is of superior quality. The forests in the level part of the coun- 
try are almost all cut off, but in the mountainous regions are rich in 
the number and variety of their woods, those useful in cabinetmaking 
being as abundant as those ordinarily used in the construction of the 
modest dwellings of the natives. During the dry season almost the 
entire province can be traveled over in carriages. There is communica- 
tion with the province of Bulacan by means of the road to San Isidro. 
and Gapan to Balnarte, in Bulacan, and Penaranda and Mayonloc, in 
Bulacan; with Nueva Viscaya by way of Carranglan to Aritao. in 
Nueva Visca}^a; with Pangasinan from Rosales to Villasis, and from 
San Quintin to Tayug; with Tarlae from Cuyapo to Paniqui, from 
Aliaga to LaPaz, and from San Juan to Victoria. 

PROVINCE OF TARLAC. 

Boundaries and General Conditions of the Country. Area and Inhabi- 
tants, Towns, Languages, Products, Industry. Commerce and Ways of 
Communication. 

BOUNDARIES AM) GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY. 

This province is bounded on the north by Pangasinan. on the south 
by Pampanga, on the east by Nueva Ecija, and on the west by Xam- 
bales. The country is level near the sea and mountainous on the west, 
and in part volcanic, where it is calcareous, argillaceous, sandy, and 
capped with loam; and on the west of the mountain chain o\' Zambales 
calcareous and fossil Herons, having considerable elevation above the 
level of the sea. 

AREA AM) INHABITANTS. 

The province has an area of '2,-277 square kilometers, and a regis- 
tered population of 89^339. The inhabitants, for the greater part, 
belong to the same races as those in Pangasinam and Pampanga. 

TOWNS. 

The capita] is Tarlae, situated not far from the source of the river o( 
this name, a branch of tin 1 Agno. [t has a population of L2,700. The 
towns of most importance are: Paniqui, on the right hank of the river 
Agno, with LI, 200 inhabitants; Gerona, to the north (^( Tarlae. with 
9,600; Victoria, to the northeast of Tarlae, near Lake Canaren, with 
L2,645: LaPaz, near the RioChicode la Pampanga, to the southeast 
of Tarlae. with l.TiM: Concepcion, to the south of Tarlae. with lS.t',71. 

and Capas, near to Concepcion, with about 3,865 inhabitants. San 
Miguel de Camiligg. Santa Ignacia. and Mariones are towns situated 
between the Tarlae River and the mountain chain of Zambales. and are 
well populated, especially San Miguel, which, according to some 
authors, has a population i^\' 18,000. The total number of town- is 
17. and of villages, 59. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 41 

LANGUAGES. 

Pampanga is spoken in the south and Pangasinan in the north. In 
the vicinity of Gerona, Ilocano is spoken a great deal. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

This province contains forest wealth of a great deal of importance, 
and very easy to utilize, on account of the proximity of the rivers to 
the forests containing useful trees. La Paz and Concepcion contain 
more than 150 square kilometers of very valuable woods, such as narra, 
acle, ambiongo, juyo, ipil, and others. Near the mountain towns of 
Camiling and Morriones, near the mountain chain of Zambales, there is 
an abundance of molave and other building woods. Agricultural prod- 
ucts form the principal richness of this province, the most important 
being rice. Next in importance comes sugar, above all in the vicinity 
of Concepcion. The main road of the north traverses the province 
from north to south, branching toward the principal towns. The rail- 
road traverses the country also, almost parallel to the road, passing 
through the towns of Bamban, Capas, Tarlac, Gerona, Paniqui, and 
Moncada. The province is connected with Nueva Ecija by the road 
from Concepcion to Arayan, that from Tarlac to San Vicinte, that 
from Victoria to San Juan de Guimba, and that from Paniqui to 
Cayapo. It is connected with Pangasinan by the road from Painiqui 
to Bayambong,.by both the road and the railroad; by the latter from 
Camiling to Mangatorem and Bayambong; and with Pampanga b3^the 
railroad and the wagon road from Capas and Concepcion to Masapinit. 

PROVINCE OF PAMPANGA. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

This province is bounded on the north by Tarlac and Nueva Ecija, 
on the south by the bay of Manila and the province of Bataan, on 
the east by the province of Bulacan, and on the west by Zambales. 
The country is mountainous in the western part and near the boundary 
of Zambales, where, besides the dividing range, is that of Mabanga, 
just east of Porac. There are other mountain groups to the east of 
Magalang, near the boundary of Tarlac. The central part of the 
province is flat. To the south is a multitude of canals and estuaries, 
which may be seen in detail in map No. 25 of the Atlas of the Philip- 
pines. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

Pampanga has an area of about 2,208 square kilometers, inhabited 
by 223,902 registered people. The great majority of these are Pam- 
pangos, a peculiar and distinguished race among all of those in the 
archipelago. There are a few Bocanos; in the mountains there are 
some Negritos or Aetas, called Balugas in the language of Pampanga. 

TOWNS. 

The capital is Bacolor, situated on a plane on the right bank 
of the River Betis, and has a population of 17,100. It has some 
well-constructed houses, such as the church, the convent, the gov- 



42 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

ernment house, and the magnificent court -house. It has a simple 
monument erected to the memory of Anda y Salazar. There are other 
towns which compare favorably with the capital in population and in 
the number and beauty of its buildings, such as San Fernando, Lubao, 
Arayat, Macabebe, San Luis. Mexico, and Candaba, which each have 
more than 14,000 inhabitants; Apalit, Mabalacat, which exceed 1,000 
each; Angeles, Guagua, Magalang, which exceed 9,000 each; Porac 
San Simon, and Santa Ana, which exceed 7,000, and, finally, Bet is. 
Santa Rita, Santo Tomas, and Minalin, which each have more than 
5,000 inhabitants. There is a total of 25 towns, 328 villages, and 297 
hamlets. 

LANGUAGES. 

Pampango, their own language, is used exclusively in the province. 
The few natives of other races in the province, and also the Balugas, 
who come down to the towns to trade, understand and speak Pampango. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION, 

The principal products of the province are sugar, rice, corn, some 
indigo, sweet potatoes, gabe, tobacco, and cotton. The value of these 
products is estimated at $1,210,000, more or less. Woods are scarce: 
nevertheless the towns of Floridablanca, Porac, Magalang. and Arayat 
produce some, and their value, with bamboo and palms, reaches $182,- 
380. There are no mines. Statistics in regard to industries were as 
follows a few years ago: Steam machinery for evaporating sugar, 1; 
alcohol stills, 8; sugar mills, hydraulic, 31; steam, ITT; hand-power. 
445; stone mills, 365; pottery factories, ( .»: looms. 12,577; belt fac- 
tories, 1; carriage shops, 15; shoe shops. 6; carpenter shops. S. In 
Bacolor, San Fernando, Guagua. Angeles, Apalit, and Arayat whole- 
sale and retail groceries exist, and in San Fernando and Guagua, drug 
stores. In all the towns of the province carriages may be hired. 
Commerce is carried on in manufactured nipa, firewood (called bacuan), 
sugar, honey, indigo, woods, sacks, sleeping mats, lime, tobacco, and 
rice. Grazing is an industry very much neglected in this province, 
not because of lack of land, but on account of the lack of pasturage. 
Fisheries' are of value, and if in this province this branch has not 
reached the point of importance that it has in other provinces, it is 
growing, and has a value already of $13,950. And tinally it should be 
added that there exist two telegraph stations one in San Fernando 
and one in Bacolor, the first with limited service and the second with 
.complete service, tin 4 chief of the line residing in the latter place. To 

the port of Guagua a steamer runs every day. 

The province is divided into two parts the high and the low — in the 
first of which the air is very pure and the water excellent, the tempera- 
ture being cool and healthful In the Lowlands, where rice is by prefer- 
ence srown, there is much humidity, greater heat, and it is less healthful. 
This is especially true of towns located in sandy regions, these includ- 
ing the principal towns of the province. All of the towns have inte- 
rior communication by wagon road and paths, and water communication 
between the towns of Bacolor, Betis, Guagua, Sexinoan. Lubao. San 
Miguel. Macabebe, Minalin. Santo Tomas, Apalit. San Simeon. 



1 Plate 9 represents the methods used by the natives in fishing in the riv 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 43 

San Luis, Arrayat, Candaba, and San Fernando, and also with the 
provinces of Manila, Cavite, Bulacan, Taiiac, Nueva Ecija, andBatuan; 
and by the aforesaid wagon roads with the same provinces, with the 
exception of Cavite. The railroad cuts the province from south- 
east to northwest, and has been the cause of a notable development of 
its industry and commerce. The line passes through important towns, 
such as Apalit, Santo Tomas, San Fernando, Calulut, Angeles, and 
Mabalacat, near the boundary of Tarlac. 

PROVINCE OF BULACAN. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY. 

This province is bounded on the north by Nueva Ecija, on the south 
by Manila and the Bay of Manila, on the east b} T the districts of Morong 
and Infanta, and on the west by Pampanga. The country is in great 
part flat, covered with a rich vegetation, which forms extensive forests 
of fruit trees. These form an arch over many roads. Some call this 
province " the garden of the Philippines." This province was for- 
merly called Neicanayan, because the town of that name was the capital. 
The cave of Biac-na-bato, of which a good idea is given in plate 12, is 
very famous. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The province has an area of 2,965 square kilometers. There are 
239,221 registered inhabitants, almost all of them being of the Tagalog 
race. 

TOWNS. 

The capital, Bulacan, has a population of 14,000. It contains well- 
constructed nouses and a beautiful church. There is a monument 
dedicated to the memory of the celebrated botanist, P. Blanco, of the 
order of Saint Augustine. Its streets and driveways are both beautiful 
and wide. One of the most beautiful towns is Baliuag, which has a 
population of about 20,000. It is traversed by the river Quingua, has 
wide streets and in the square has a celebrated market weekly. At 
this place hats and patacas of the finest quality are made. Quingua, to 
the north of Bulacan, with a population of 6,714, is a celebrated health 
resort, noted for the baths in the crystal waters of the river. Angat, 
to the northeast of Bulacan, has a population of 6,630. In the moun- 
tains are found abundant iron mines and beautiful building woods — 
ebony, palotinto, sivucao, etc. The iron pots and kettles so much 
used in the country are manufactured here. San Miguel de Mayumo, 
with 16,865 inhabitants, is noted for its iron mines and the famous 
springs of Sibul, where so many are cured of their infirmities. Malolos, 
in the northwest of Bulacan, has a population of 13,426. Hagonoy, on 
the seacoast near the boundary Pampanga, has a population of 20,900. 
Calumpit has a population of 15,900. Maria, San Rafael, and San 
Isidro are towns of more than 10,000. Meycauayan, Polo, Oban do, 
and Santa Isabel have more than 9,000 inhabitants. There is a total 
of 25 towns, 360 villages, and 365 hamlets. 

LANGUAGE. 

Tagalog is generally spoken. 



44 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRIES, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OP COMMUNICATION. 

This province is under perfect cultivation and produces abundant 
crops of rice and corn, large quantities of sugar, indigo, beneseed, 
chocolate, coffee, and all kinds of fruits and vegetables. There are 
excellent woods in the mountains, among these sibucao. Besides 
these there are gum, ginger, tingantaangan. from which oil for lamps 
is extracted; the castor bean, for the manufacture of oil for medicinal 
purposes; balao, from which varnish is made, and large numbers of 
nipa palms, for the manufacture of alcohol. Hat making is the prin- 
cipal industry, there being an extensive hat market in Baliuag. The 
finest qualit} r of petacas de nito, which have been given premium- in 
international expositions and which are celebrated in all the principal 
cities of Europe, are manufactured here. Cotton cloth, sinamay. and 
other fabrics are also manufactured. 



In the town of Angat there is an abundance of iron ore quite unde- 
veloped. Magnetic ore, coal, copper, lead, and silver are found, and 
in the beds of the rivers some gold. There are good quarries where 
slate and flint are found. The province is but 5 leagues from Manila. 
There is a daily steamer direct to Manila and a well-preserved road 
going by land. From Bulacanto Baliuag it is 30 kilometers, to Hago- 
noi 18, to San Miguel de Mayumo 17, to San Jose 28, to Meycauavan 
about 20. The province communicates by railroad and wagon road 
with Pampanga, by wagon road from San Miguel to Polo in Nueva 
Ecija, and also to Penaranda, also in Nueva Ecija. Both the railroad 
and wagon road connect it with Manila. The railroad runs through 
the western part of the province, passing through the towns of Polo, 
Meycauavan, Marillao, Bocaue, Bigaa. (Juiguinto. Malolos. and 
Calumpit. 

THE COMANDANCIA OF INFANTA. 
BOUNDARIES AM) GENERAL CONDITION OF TILE COUNTRY. 

This comandancia is bounded on the north by Nueva Ecija and the 
district of Principe, on the south by Tayabas, on the east by the 
Pacific, and on the west by the provinces of Morong, Laguna. and 
Manila. Il is a strip of country very narrow, especially toward the 
south, in the region between tin 1 sea and tin 4 mountain chain oi' Bana- 
tangan, which separates it from Buacan and Morong. This mountain 
range throws oil' spurs toward the sea, and between these are small 
rivers. Along the coast east of Binangonan there is a peninsula, the 
coasts of whicn are almost unknown. A canal separates this from tin 1 
mainland, thus converting it into an island, which terminates in Point 
[naguican. To the south there is another peninsula, which terminates 
in Point Tactigan. to the west of which is the famous royal port, 
Lampon. 

\\:\\ VM> IMIAIUTAN TO. 

The total area, including Polillo and the adjacent Islands, IS 2,194 
square kilometers. There are T, loo registered inhabitants, the greater 
part being Tagalog. In the mountains there are some hamlets of 
Negritos, who. refusing to be subdued, wander about in the mountains 
of Binangonan. 




CD 
.-A w 

If 

o 1 

Eh « 

SI 

u Z\ 
< o 

5 5 
w K 

t % 



KEPOKT OP THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 45 

TOWNS. 

The principal and almost the only town, Binangonan de Lampon, is 
situated about 3 kilometers from the sea. It has an excellent port, 
called the royal port, and is the ancient Lampon so well known in the 
seventeenth century, because it was then the depository of the galleons 
and the wealth of Manila, as it was considered a safer way of communica- 
tion with new Spain than by way of the narrow strait of San Bernardino. 
There are two other ports, Santa Monica and Misna, completely neg- 
lected at the present time, the same being true of the royal port. 
Binangonan has a population of 9,095. 

LANGUAGES. 

Tagalog is spoken, and is understood and spoken also by the few 
Negritos who wander about in the mountains and come down to the 
plains to trade. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRIES, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

There are fine woods in the mountains, but they are not worked, on 
account of the difficulty in transporting them. The area of land under 
cultivation is less than 1 square kilometer, this being devoted to rice. 
Other products are the cocoanut, chocolate, and coffee. The only 
industry is the manufacture of.nipa wine at Binangonan. There were 
formerly other establishments of this kind and factories for the manu- 
facture of cocoanut oil, but these industries were paralyzed by the 
injuries wrought by the hurricane of 1882. The precipitous character 
of the country, and the mountains and rivers which must be crossed, 
render the construction of good roads impossible, except at a cost not 
warranted by the commerce of this region. The footpath which leads 
to the town of Sinaloan, in the Laguna province, is the only one which 
exists for the use of mail carriers and travelers. 

POLILLO AND THE ADJACENT ISLANDS. 
SITUATION AND CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY. 

The island, vvhich is situated in front of the comandancia of Infanta 
is formed of a central mountain of medium height and is covered with 
forests. It has the shape of a right-angle triangle whose sides north 
and east, broken by bays and openings, are on the north unbroken and 
inaccessible. The east coast is fringed with islands and dangerous 
reefs. On the west coast the water is deep, except in front of the 
port of Polillo, where there is an extensive reef, which, extending 
from southeast to southwest parallel with the "island, forms a narrow 
canal, open on the northwest with a depth from 25 to 28 meters, which 
leads to the port of Polillo. 

TOWN AND INHABITANTS. 

The town of Polillo is a fair port, but little used and dangerous on 
account of the reefs. It has a population of 1,700, almost all of 
the Tagalog race. 



46 REPOBT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

COMMERCE. 

The commerce of the island of Polillo is confined to the silo of balate 
and wax, which are collected in considerable quantities. Coaland other 
minerals are found in this Island, but on account of the cost of extrac- 
tion t licv are not worked. 

THE NEAR-BT WD ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

The rocky island of Tumalic, to the southeast of Polillo, is of no 
importance and is uninhabited. To the south of Polillo is Baleguin, a 
little island of no importance. To the east of Polillo there is a group 
of uninhabited islands. The principal of those are Palasan, MaJagui- 
nan. ( ladungeoen, [guicon, and Patnanonagan, the Largest of the group. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE CENTER OF EUZOX (B). 

[Map No. 9 of the Atlas of the Philippines.] 

PROVINCE OF BATAAN. 

BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY. 

This province is a peninsula, united on the north with Zambales and 
Pampanga. It is bounded on the west by the Bay of Manila, on the 
southeast by the Boca-chica of this bay, and on the west and south- 
west by the China Sea. The country is mountainous, but in the 
southern extremity, where the Mariveles Range rises, there are exten- 
sive plains. The rivers are of small size and navigable only for small 
boats. The province is 10 leagues in length from north to south and 
8 in width from east to west. Only one-sixth of the area of the prov- 
ince is under cultivation. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The area is 1,264 square kilometers. There are 50,761 registered 
inhabitants, the most of them Tagalogs. In the towns to the north- 
east there are many- Pampangos. In the mountains there are many 
Negritos, the most of them leading an erratic life. Very few of these 
live in villages, and fewer still are registered in the civil records. 

TOWNS. 

The capital is Balanga, a beautiful place with an excellent church. 
The public square is beautiful and the streets straight and wide. The 
principal buildings are the government house, the cuy hall, and the 
prison. The population is 9,000. Other important towns are Moron, 
to the extreme west, with a population of 3,000; Dinalupijan, to the 
north, 2,600; Hermosa, to the south of Dinalupijan, 3,000; Oreni, to 
the south of Hermosa, 6,500; Samal, to the south of Oreni, 4,500; 
Albucay, to the north of Balanga, 7,000; Orion, to the south-southeast 
of Balanga, 7,600; Mariveles, on the port of the same name near the 
entrance of the bay, 2,000. There are 12 towns and 8 Negrito villages. 

LANGUAGES. 

Most of the civilized natives speak Tagalog, although some speak 
Pampango. The Negritos, who come down to trade, understand and 
speak either one or the other of these languages. 

p c — vol 3 — 01 5 



[% REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

PRODUCTS, [NDUSTBIBS, WD ways or COMMUNICATION. 

The products are rice in abundance, sugar cane, indigo, beneseed, and 

different kind- of fruits. There arc but few industries. In the town of 
( >reni there is a pottery shop, w here jars for sugar and alcohol are made. 
in Ahiicnv. a brickyard; in Balanga, two alcohol distilleries, and 
another in Pilar. On the road from Oreni to Hermosa there i> a place 
called Lamina, where bolos (knives) are made. In the mountains 
there are quarries of valuable marble and white and red jasper marked 
with wavy lines, As the forests constitute one of the principal sources 
of wealth, Manila. Bulacan, and other adjacent provinces look to this 
province for woods for the construction uf large and small boats and 
[or building. The towns of the province are united by wagon roads. 
The principal one of these runs along the coast of the bay from 
Dinaiupijan to Mariveles, bifurcating at Balanga in the direction of 
Moron and Bagac, on the coast of the China Sea. Communication 
with Manila is by water; with Zambales by land; from Moron and 
Dinaiupijan to Santa Rita, and with Pampanga by way of Florida- 
blanca. 

THE ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

At the mouth of the Orani River is the island of Tuba-tuba. This 
island is covered with trees and is often overflowed by the tide. There 
are other small islands in the same vicinity. The islands at the entrance 
of the hay will be described when the island of Correjidor is discussed. 

PROVINCE OF MANILA. 

A- this is the mo>t important province 1 of the archipelago, it will be 
discussedat Length. This province, which was formerly called Pondo, 
IS in central Luzon, and is bounded on the north by Bulacan. on the 
south by Cavite, on the east by the province and lake of Laguna, 
and on the wot by the bay of Manila. Although one of the smallest 
of the provinces, naving a circumference of not more than 98 kilo- 
meters, it is. nevertheless, one of tin 1 most populous, having SOOjOOO 1 
inhabitants, divided among 28 parishes. 



The city of Manila, founded in 1571, is the capital of tin 1 province 
and of the archipelago. Here are Located the residence of tin 1 gov- 
ernor-general, that of the archbishop, the metropolitan o\' all the 
islands, the supreme court of Manila, the department- oii civil 
administration and of the treasury, the civil governor and municipal 
government of Manila, tin 4 military department, the department of 
military and <-i\il engineers, the council o\' administration, the 
reasury, the |>«>-i office and telegraph departments, the customs- 
house, where the treasury has it- offices, and the town corporation. 
The population is L4,000. The city ha- beeo fortified since L590, its 
houses all being of -.did construction. The streets are quite wid* and 
built on the plan in accordance with the idea iA' its immortal founder. 



( '"ti-uit tli.' introduction in regard to the census. 

plates li and 12 we rive m •■ Manila taken from the bay, and of the 

walled city taken the daj after the terrible tire of September 27, L897. ' 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 49 

Legaspi, with such art that one side of the street is always in the 
shade. The public squares and the neighborhood are adorned with 
beautiful gardens, constantly watered by fountains, and thanks to the 
immortal Carriedo, who died in 1743, there is hardly a street in the 
entire municipal district which does not have its own standpipe to 
furnish an abundance of water to the people living in the vicinity. 
Communication between the most distant points within the municipal 
radius and the city is facilitated by the telephone system, having 
436,549 metres of wire, and the street railway system, which runs 
through the principal streets of the city and its suburbs, covering a 
distance of about 17,200 meters. 

CHURCHES. 

The cathedral has been restored, following the Romano-Byzantine 
style of architecture. There are also in Manila four convents, with 
spacious churches, belonging to the religious orders of San Augustin, 
San Francisco, Santo Domingo, and the Recoletos of San Augustin. 
Also the residence and church of San Ignatio, belonging to the Jesuits, 
the mission church of the Capuchins, the convent and church belong- 
ing to the religious order of Santa Clara, and the Church of the Third 
Order. 

PUBLIC INSTRUCTIONS. 

There is a seminary in charge of the Paulist friars. A university in 
charge of the Dominicans confers the degrees of licentiate and doctor in 
theology, and of licentiate in civil law, medicine, and pharmacy. The 
college of San Juan de Letran, in charge of the Dominicans, is an 
institution of primary and secondary instruction. Another subsidized 
by the civil government, called the Ateneo Municipal, is in charge of the 
Jesuits. In both of these studies applicable to commerce and industry 
are pursued and degrees are given as bachelor of arts or mercantile or 
mechanical experts. A normal school for teachers, founded by royal 
order in 1865, and elevated to higher grade by royal order of 1894, is 
an institution of primary instruction and is in the care of the Jesuits. 
In all of these colleges the pupils are divided into two classes, resident 
and nonresident, except in the seminary, where they are all residents. 
There are besides in the capital the Naval School, the School of Arts 
and Trades, which has combined with it the old Academy of Design, 
and the School of Agriculture. This institution publishes the Official 
Gazette, the Ecclesiastical Bulletin of the archbishopric of Manila, 
and various daily papers and reviews. For the education of girls there 
are, first, the College of Santa Isabel, which has united with the old 
College of Santa Potenciana, both of remote foundation; second, the 
College of Santa Rosa and the Municipal School, under the care of the 
Sisters of San Vicente de Paul; third, the College of Santa Catalina, in 
charge of the Dominican sisters, and, fourth, the Beaterio of the Jesuits. 
Just on the edge of the city is the College of the Concepcion, called the 
Concordia, and that of Loban, both in charge of the Sisters of San 
Vicente de Paul: and about a league from Manila is the orphan asylum 
of Nandaloyan, under the direction of the Augustin nuns. 



50 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

oxen in noNS of ohabiti . 

Within tin- walled city is a large civil hospital; outside a military 
hospital and the Hospieio of San Jose\ The Sisters of Charity serve 
i„ ;l i| f these. There Is also a leper hospital; also a government 
pawn B hop. There i- a large jail and a penitentiary having 800 
inmates, and in both of these useful trades are taught. 

-I Bl RB8 OF MANILA AM) TOWNS OF THE PROVINCE. 

Three bridges the bridge of Spain, the Suspension bridge, and the 
A\:ila bridge— span the Pasig River and unite the city with it- popu- 
lous suburbs. 



'Phi- is the most important suburb, and in it domestic and foreign 
commerce are centralized. It has some tine buildings, among which 
may be mentioned the church, the Hotel de Oriente, the Spanish bank. 
the post-office, the stores along the Escolta, and others. Its streets are 

wide and well cared for. 



This populous suburb is situated to the north of Binondo. Although 
it has many nipa houses, their construction is no longer permitted 
within the area bounded by Divisoria street, Plate 18 gives a good 
idea of this suburb and the traffic on one of its canals. 

The other suburbs within tin 1 municipal radius are: Trozo or San 
Jose, Santa Cruz, Sampalog, Quiapo, San Miguel, Ermita. Paco, or 
San Fernando de Dilao, and Arroceros. San Miguel and San Sebas- 
tian are noted for the elegance of their residences. The magnificent 
church of the Recoletos of San Augustin is located in San Sebastian. 
San Anton and Sampalog contain many beautiful houses and wide 
streets, among the latter being the wide ^avenues of Iris and of Alix. 
Ermita also should be mentioned because of its elegant houses of 
modern construction, and the magnificent building of the Normal 
School and the observatory. The population of Manila and its suburbs 
is about 800,000. 

TOWNS. 

Among the most important are the following: Malabo n, with a pop- 
ulation oi 20,000, which is connected with Manila by a steam tramway 

having hourly train-. The church is very large: it has two tine 

towers. A sugar refinery i- located here. The orphan asylum is 
pnder the # direction of the Augustin friars. The principal wealth of 

the town i- in it- fisheries. Pasig, a town ^^\' 20,900 inhabitant-, has. 

besides it- church and convent, many fine houses and a school for the 
education of young girls. Bateros, with 9,200 inhabitants, is notable 
for the peculiar industry of duck raising. Immense flocks of ducks 
are raised \'*>v the purpose of obtaining their eggs, which are much 
emed i>\ the natives. Mariquina, with a population oi L1,000, is 
celebrated because of an iron spring, known n- the Chorrillo, whose 
waters have cured main invalids. Malate, with a population of 6,100, 
is noted for its manj beautiful houses recenth constructed. Santa 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 51 

Anna, with a population of 6,000, is known on account of the fine 
laces manufactured by the native women. San Pedro Macati occupies 
a picturesque position on the banks of the Pasig. 

PRODUCTS. 

Besides the ordinary products of the country, such as rice, sugar 
cane, corn, etc., this province cultivates and exports large quantities 
of betel, a plant whose aromatic leaf forms the principal part of the 
buyo. Pasay is a town which devotes itself almost entirely to this 
branch of agriculture. 

COMMERCE AND INDUSTRIES. 

In Manila and its towns there are many establishments for the man- 
ufacture of tobacco, ice, thread, cord, and rope, iron factories, steam 
sawmills, etc. Commerce in copra, which promises a great deal in 
the future, consists in exporting to Europe the dried meat of the 
cocoanut, from which the oil is afterwards extracted. Almost all 
the commerce of the Philippines, domestic as well as foreign, is car- 
ried on through Manila. There are many Spanish and foreign houses 
which have branches inthe provinces. 

THE PORT AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

In the port are ships from all the nations of the world. Many of 
the smaller craft anchor within the river in order to facilitate unload- 
ing. Daily steamers leave for various parts on the island of Luzon, 
and weekly steamers to the distant provinces and to China. There are 
bimonthly subsidized mail steamers for all points in the archipelago 
and for Europe. Manila is in communication by wagon road and rail- 
road with the provinces of Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarloc, and Pan 
gasinan; by water with the Laguna De Ba}^ and the provinces bor- 
dering v on it, and by sea with all of the provinces of the islands. 

PEOVINCE OR DISTRICT OF CAVITE. 

BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

The province is bounded on the north by the Bay of Manila, on the 
south by Batangas, on the east by Batangas and Manila, and on the 
west by the China Sea. The country is mountainous at some 8 kilo- 
meters from the coast, rising gradually from the sea. The most moun- 
tainous part of the province is the southwest and south, where the 
mountain slopes of Sungay are found. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The province has an area of 1,348 square kilometers and a popula- 
tion of 134,569, the most of these Tagalogs. 

TOWNS. 

The capital is Cavite, a seaport and fortified town. The Tagalos 
call it Cauit; that is to say, fishhook, which is the shape taken by the 
bay.. It is united to the island b} r a narrow isthmus, which appears to 






52 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

be artificial. Cavite is also called "the port." The streets are quite 
straight, although somewhat narrow. The houses are of masonry. 
There is a fine parochial church, two convents, and a fine large hospital. 
There is also the Sanctuary of Nuestra Senora, called Porta Baga, a 
u.-ll equipped arsenal, a dockyard, and a fair dry dock, where the 
shipping of the archipelago is repaired and cleaned. There are some 
tobacco factories of importance: steam, hydraulic, and handmills for 
the manufacture of sugar, sawmills, soap and oil factories, and distill- 
eries. The city has a population of 3,000. 

Other town- of importance are Bacoor, Cavite Vicjo, San Roque, 
and Caiidad. all situated on the Bay of Bacoor. Caridada hasapopu- 
lation <>f more than 6,000, San Roque 11,500, Cavite Vicjo 9,800. and 
Bacoor 1.3,600. On the western coast are Rosario with 6,600, Santa 
(in/ with 7,600, Naic with 7. loo, and Ternate with 2,^00 inhabitants. 

In the interior toward the north the towns of most importance»are 
Imns with 14.000, Carmona with 3.167, San Francisco de Malabon 
witli s.7»»<> inhabitants; in the central part of the province. Dasnari- 
mas with 3,500, Silan with 1 >, 100, Maragonbon with 10,400, Indan with 
L4,700 inhabitants, and in the south, Bailin with 4, 189 and Alfonso with 
7.os'.>. There is a total of 22 towns and 108 villages. 

LANGUAGES. 

Spanish is spoken in the port of Cavite. Estanzuela, and San Roque, 

and Tagalog in the other towns. 

PRODI OTS, INDl STRIES, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

The soil in the vicinity of the lowland towns produces rice of an excel- 
lent quality, which is greatly esteemed in the archipelago. Coffee -of 
the best quality is gathered in Indan. Silan. and Alfonso. The area 
under cultivation is increasing steadily. Corn, sugar cane, andchoco- 
late are also grown. In the southwestern region there are fine forests 
of large and well-grown trees, whose wood is serviceable for the 'Con- 
struction of ships and for making furniture. There is excellent hunt- 
ing in the province. The live stock in the province includes 1."). (KM) 
buffalo (carabaos), 9,000 cattle, 6,000 hogs, and 5,000 horses. The 
principal industries of this province consist, in the elevated towns, in 
th<' manufacture of cloth from hemp and cotton and the production of 
sugar, there being more than L60 sugar mills; in the coast towns the 
fisheries, the manufacture of salt, and tin 1 cultivation of rice. Com- 
merce i- not much developed. (Moth and hardware are imported, and 
rice, coffee, sugar, and fish exported. There are good roads in the 
province, uniting the coast towns, but many of these are impassable 
during the rain} season. Other roads cross in all directions, uniting 
the principal towns and villages. Communication with Manila is by 
the bay and i>\ land along the road following the coast; with Batangas 
bj the road from Alfonso to Tuy, and with the Laguna by the road 
from ( brmona to Bifian. 

DI8TRU I OB PROVINi I 01 CORREGIDOR AND THE ADJACENT 

[SLANDfi 

BOl NDABIES wi> GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY. 

I'll;- island of Correridor, lying at the entrance to the bay of 
Manila, has on the north the strait called Boca chica, which separates 










VOL 




J 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



53 



it from Bataan; on the southeast the Boca-grande, fronting on the 
southwest Cavite. The island of Corregidor extends from west-south- 
west to east-northeast from Point Horadada to Point Buri for a dis- 
tance of 4 miles in greatest length, its breadth being very unequal on 
account of the irregularity in form. It is 26i miles distant from the 
mouth of the river Pasig of Manila. At about one-third of its length 
there is a low-lying, narrow, sand} T isthmus which unites two high 
mountains. The eastern partis high, while the western part gradually 
rises to form an extensive plateau, which is the highest part of the 
island. On this are the semaphore and light-house of the port of 
Manila. In general all of the western part of the island is composed of 
elevated crests and bluffs, frequently cut by deep fissures, whose bot- 
toms during the rainy season are converted into so many ponds. 
Toward the northern part of the isthmus, on a little bay formed by 
the coast, is situated the town of San Jose. This ba} r offers a deep 
and well-protected anchorage for all classes of ships during the south- 
west and northeast monsoons. There is a good anchorage almost 
entirely inclosed formed by this island and Pulo Caballo, which is a 
small island situated to the northeast of the central part of Corregidor. 

This island also has a light-house. On all of the western part of 
the island there is an abundant supply of excellent water filtering 
through from the mountains, and three springs, which at all times 
furnish pure water, are located near the anchorage, so that it is very 
easy for ships to procure water here. The climate is even, temper- 
ate, and in general very healthful, many of the natives reaching old 
age. This island, on account of its isolated situation and its healthful 
conditions, seems more suitable for the establishment of a sanitarium 
or leper hospital. From a military view point it may be considered 
the only base of defense of the important bay of Manila, being as 
suitable for a torpedo station as for a shelter for ships designated to 
defend the entrance, its elevation making it a good outlook station. 
The soil is red clay, covered with great rocks, rendering its cultivation 
very difficult. The subsoil is a sandy clay rock, soft in some places 
and in others hard, white, and of a slaty appearance, disposed in diag- 
onal layers of little thickness, which are easily broken up. In other 
parts it is sandy granite, uniformly hard. The few small regions 
where the soil on account of its situation and quality is favorable for 
cultivation are cleared off and sown to rice, bananas, corn, sweet 
potatoes, etc. 

As 'the character of the ground demands incessant work, and this is 
distasteful to the native, who is accustomed to plant in virgin soil and 
then leave the crop to the care of Providence, these cultivated areas 
are but few and do not produce as much as they should, or sufficient 
to provide a small number of inhabitants. Another reason why these 
lands are not cultivated is the prevalence of the winds, which are quite 
violent during the monsoons, particularly that from the north, which, 
in addition to being strong, are very dry. The island "pastures about 
200 head of cattle. The inhabitants have no other occupation than 
fishing, which is not carried on to any great extent. There is no com- 
merce, articles of prime necessity coming from Cavite and the adjacent 
coast of Bataan and Cavite. The only town is San Jose, with 420 
inhabitants. 

LANGUAGES. 



As in Cavite, both Spanish and Tagalog are spoken. 



5 1 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMI88ION. 

ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

Pulo Caballo, situated to the south, is the largest of the islands 
w hich surround ( lorregidor. It is very rocky, and possesses limited veg- 
itation; there arc bul few inhabitants. On the northeastern extrem- 
ii \ there is a light-house showing si white light. La Monja is a conical 
rock 40 meters In height, situated '2.1 miles to the wot southwest of 
the western pari of the island of Corregidpr. El Fraile is a rugged 
rock, rising clear of the water, almost to the south of the light-house 
on the Pulo Caballo and to the northwest of Punta Restinga in Cavite. 
Los Cochinos or Lechones are five low rocks visible one-half mile to 
the .south of the point southwest of the port of Mariveles. The most 
eastern of these is called Pulo Monti. To the northeast of Corregidor 
are two little islands smaller than La Monja, called Horadadas and 
Santa Amalia. 

THE PROVINCE OR DISTRICT OF MOBONG AND THE ISLAND OF 

TALIX. 

BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTKY. 

This province or district is bounded on the north by Bulacan, on the 
south by the Lagunade Bay, on the east by the district of Infanta and 
Laguna, and on the west by Manila. The country, although broken 

in some parts, has many extensive plains, which would be excellent for 
cultivation were it not for the floods from the lake, which often destroy 
the crops. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The area, including Talin, is 1,656 square kilometers, and the popula- 
tion 46,940, almost all Tagalogs. In the mountain chain of San Mateo a 
few Negritos are found. 

TOWNS. 

The capital, Morong, has a population of l<U»co. It has some tine 
buildings, Buch as the church, the convent, and the town hall. The 
principal towns, almost all situated near the lake, are: Jala Jala, with 
15,000 inhabitants; Tanay, with 4,774; Bares, with L,500; Binangonan, 
with i sol; Cardona, with L0,000; Taytay, with 6,684, andCainta, with 
-.117. In the interior is Antipolo. with a population o\' 3,700. This 
place is famous throughout the Philippines as the sanctuary of the 
miraculous image of Nuestra Senora de la Paz. There is a total i^ 1 1 
i«>w Qg and ;, villages. 

LANGl AGES. 

Tagalog is used almost exclusively, even by the Negritos, who 

come down t<> hade with the Tagalogs. 

PRODUCTS, COMMERCE, \\i> WATS () '" COMMUNICATION. 

This pn>\ ince i- nol well adapted to agriculture, hut nevertheless rice 
and sugar cane are cultivated in considerable quantities; also corn, 
tobacco, and bamboo. In the mountains molave, narra, acle, banaba, 
baticulin, dongon, calamansanay, tindalo, and a -mall variety of bamboo 




, 













I 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 55 

and rattan are found. The region about San Guillermo de Bosoboso, 
Jala Jala, Tanay, Baras, and Pililla abounds in large game. The indus- 
tries of this district consist mainly in the manufacture of lime, rush 
mats, and clothing for the natives. Most of the commerce is in sugar, 
lime, cattle, and deer; bamboo, wood, and fish as articles of export; 
and in the interior of the district rice, corn, cattle, fowls, fish, fruit, 
and tobacco. The towns are united by roads and paths, and the dis- 
trict is in communication with the adjacent provinces by land and with 
the rest of the archipelago by the Laguna de Bay. The connection 
with the province of Manila by land is along the road from Cainta to 
Mariquina, and with the province of Laguna from Pililla to Santa 
Maria. 

THE ISLAND OF TALIM. 

The island of Talim, situated to the south of and very near to Point 
Quinabulasan, extends from north to south in the form of an elongated 
oval. It is 11 kilometers long and about 6 kilometers broad at the 
widest part. A mountain range runs from north to south in the island. 
From these mountains a fine stone is obtained, which during the last 
few years has been used for construction in the new works of the 
port. Its area is about 10 square kilometers. It has but few inhabit- 
ants, who occup3 r small villages or hamlets along the shore. Many of 
these inhabitants are emploj^ed in the quarries of the works of the 
port. The principal villages are: Banla, Tabong, Quinagatang, Subag, 
and Aanosa. Along the south coast are several small islands of little 
importance, the largest of these being Olagitan. To the west of the 
strait which separates Talim from Morong is the little island of Tusan. 

PROVINCE OF LA LAGUNA. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTR1 . 

The large lake or bay, having a circumference of 165 kilometers, gives 
its name to this province. It is bounded on the north by the district 
of Morong and Bulacan, on the east by the mountain range which 
separates it from the Pacific, on the south by the provinces of Tabayas 
and Batangas, and on the west by Cavite and Manila. The country is 
much broken toward the boundaries of Morong, but on account of the 
multitude of rivers is very fertile, especially in the northwest and east, 
where it is quite level. The province is 11 leagues in length and the 
same in breadth, including the lake. The lake sometimes becomes 
very rough, almost like the ocean, causing the shipwreck at times of 
boats of good size. The shape of Mount Banajao and the waterfall at 
Bocotan are worthy of mention. The latter will be described in speak- 
ing of the town of Majayjay. The hot mineral baths of Aguas Santas 
and the grotto of Maquiling are also worthy of mention. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The province has an area of 2,603 square kilometers, and a popula- 
tion of 169,983, almost all of whom belong to the Tagalog race, 

p c — vol 3 — 01 7 



56 REPOBT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

TOWN-. 

The capital, Santa Cruz, has a population of 13,800. It has a 
magnificent church and hospital belonging to the Franciscans, and 
many notable public and private 1 buildings. The principal towns 
in tie vicinity of the eastern shore of the lake are: Siniloan, 
with MOO inhabitants: Pangil, with 2,481; Facte, with 3,000; Pila, 
with 5,000; Bay, on the southern shore, with 2,100; Los Baiios, with 
2,850, and Calamba, with 11,476. On the west coast, Cabuyao, with 
11,181; Santa Rosa, with 9,300; Binang, with 18,000; San Pedro de 
Tunasan, with 3,800 inhabitants. In the interior, Pagsanjan, to the 
cast of Santa Cruz, with 6,300, and Majayjay, to the south of Pag- 
sanjan, with 6,631. This town is famous for being in the vicinity of 
the waterfall of Botocan, formed by the river Camatian. This river, 
having its source to the east of the great mountain Banajao, receives 
during its course of nine miles the waters of several large branches, 
runs through the mountainous country, which at times forms canyons, 
until it reaches Salto, w T here there is an abyss of 140 meters deep. 
There the waters, extending themselves to a width of 90 feet deep, 
fall perpendicularly. The water in its fall is dashed into spray, 
presenting the appearance of a cloud of vapor, which, being pierced 
by the rays of the sun, presents a thousand color illusions, the 
appearance being sometimes like that of a distant tire. To the south 
of Santa Cruz and southwest of Mayjayjay is the town Nagcarlang, 
famous for its cemetery, which is, perhaps, the best in the Philip- 
pines. The town has a population of 12,976. The province has a 
total of 33 towns, 15 villages, and about -400 hamlets. 

LANGUAGES. 

Tagalog is the only language spoken. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRIES, COMMERCE, AM) WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

This province may be considered the garden of the Philippines. 
Its soil produces every kind of tropical plant and tree. Among the 
products are sugar cane, rice, the betel nut, corn, coffee, and the 
cocoanut, there being a flourishing trade in cocoanut oil. The area 
of cultivated land exceeds 4:23 square kilometers. There are in the 
province more than 45,000 head of live stock, including horses, cattle. 
sheep, goats, hogs, and buffaloes. There are large cocoanut wine dis- 
tilleries, cabinet shops, and blacksmith shops, the latter celebrated for 
the bolos (large knives) which thej make. Thereare more than 210 mills 
for the extraction of cocoanut oil. The fruits grown in this province 
are exauisite. They are mostly exported to Manila. The lanzon and 
the chicomame are worthy of mention. The province communicates 
with the adjacent provinces b\ cart roads. One from San Paglo runs 
to Dolores and Tidon, in Tayabas; another from Calamba to Santo 
Tomas, in Batangas; another from Binan to Muntinlupa, in Manila: 
another from Santa Maria t<> Fililla. in Morong. The waterway to 
Manila and the baj of Manila by the River Pasig is excellent 



REPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 57 

THE PROVINCE OF BATANGAS. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY. 

This rich and well-cultivated province is bounded on the north by 
Cavite and La Laguna, on the south and west by the sea, and on the 
east by the province and bay of Tayabas. It was formerly known as 
Balayan, Comintan, and Taal province. It measures 12 leagues from 
north to south and 20 from east to west. The country is in general 
uneven. From the great mountain chain of Sungay the country grad- 
ually slopes to the sea, forming wide valle} 7 s between the small spurs 
and ridges, which generally disappear before reaching the coast. 
Point Santiago and Point Cagador are the terminal points of moun- 
tainous land. The latter of these separates the magnificent bays of 
Balayan and Batangas. The eastern part is more mountainous. The 
grottos of the town of San Juan are of great depth and almost 
unexplored. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The province has an area of 3,130 square kilometers and a popula- 
tion of 311,180, almost all Tagalogs. 

TOWNS. 

The capital, Batangas, situated on the bay of the same name, in the 
south central part of the province, has a population of 37,400. It has 
some fine buildings, such as the church, the convent, the government 
house, the city hall, the prison, and many private residences. The 
cemetery is located in a well-kept open space, and is worthy of a peo- 
ple so religious and wealthy. This province contains the most popu- 
lous towns of the archipelago. The most important along the southern 
coast are: Balayan, a port on the bay of the same name, with 22,126 
inhabitants; Calaca, on the same bay, with 11,715; Lemerey, on the 
same bay, and near the Mansipit River, with 13,000; Taal, near Leme 
rey, on the opposite bank of the same river, with 15,921; Battang, 
on the bay of Batangas, one of the most populous of the towns, with 
a population of 38,300. The towns in the eastern part of the province 
are: San Juan de Bocdoc, with a population of 13,156, and Lobo, with 
6,202. On the western coast are: Lian and Nasugbu, with 3,889 and 
8,263, respectively. To the north of Lake Taal are: Taiasay, with 
8,200 inhabitants, and near the boundary of the province of Laguna, 
Santo Tomas, with a population of 10,607, and Tanauan, with a popu- 
lation of 21,513. In the interior are: Lipa, with 39,559 inhabitants; 
Rosario, with 13,606; San Jose, with 10,455; Ibaan and Taisan, each 
with more than 9,000. There are in all 22 towns, 720 villages, and 7 
hamlets. 

LANGUAGES. 

Tagalog is exclusively spoken. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

About 100,000 piculs of coffee are produced annually and 150,000 
piculs of sugar. Rice, chocolate, and various other articles are also 
produced. 



58 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

INDUSTRIES. 

Many kinds of cloth of the finest texture are produced in loom- of 
the most simple construction and at very slight cost. These fabrics 
arc mad< of Silk, hemp, and cotton, and brightly dyed. The value of 
the exports of this province is double that of the imports. In the 
.■arly pari of February in each year there is a notable fair held in the 
capital town, which attracts large numbers of people. It is in the 
nature of an agricultural and industrial exposition, and oiler- premiums, 
both honorary and in money, for the besl exhibits! The fair held in 
Taal the Mh of December is also one of importance. 

There are 1.46,576 head of live stock in the province, whose value i- 
estimated at $1,691,282. In the mountains of San Juan. Santo Tomas, 
and Rosario there are many fine woods suitable for building purposes 
and the manufacture of furniture. To reach Batangasfrom Manila by 
sea it is necessary to cross tin 1 bay of Manila and follow the coast of 
( a vite. There are three steamers on this line. The roads are all good 
during the dry season, but during the rainy season many of them 
become impassable on account of the character of the soil, which is 
clay. From the capital town there are two main cart roads, one to the 
northeast and one to the north. There is communication by sea with 
the entire archipelago. By land there are cart roads to Laguna by 
way of Santo Tomas and Calamba, to Tayabas by way of Rosario and 
Tindon, and to Cavite from Balayan by footpath to the village of 
( aitinja. 





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Plate XXVI. 




FALLS OF THE BOTOCAN (MAJAYJAY). 



CHAPTER V. 

SOUTH LUZON. 

PROVINCE OF TAYABAS. 



BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY. 

The irregular shape of this province makes it difficult to indicate the 
boundaries with precision. It may be said that the north boundary is 
formed by the province of Laguna and the Pacific Ocean. On the 
east it is bounded b} 7 Ambos Camarines, on the south by the sea of 
Mindoro, and on the west by Batangas and La Laguna. The country 
is exceedingly mountainous, and the configuration very irregular. The 
distance from Gumaca, on the north, to Laguimanoc, on the south, is 
6 leagues; from Point Dapdap, on the north, to the head of Bondoc, 
on the south, more than 20 leagues, and from Batangas to the head of 
Bondoc more than 30. That part of the countiy between Gumaca and 
Laguimanoc is a kind of isthmus, which divides the province into two 
parts. Throughout the length of the province, as far as Bondoc, there 
is a central mountain chain, which sends out smaller chains of less 
importance into the interior. These are covered with vegetation, and 
send out in all directions a large number of rivers and streams. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The area of this province is 5,893 square kilometers and the popu- 
lation 109,780. Of these the inhabitants of the western part and on 
the western slope of the peninsula of Tayabas, which terminates in 
Point Bondoc (or Cabeza Bondoc), are almost all Tagalogs. Those who 
inhabit the country near Camarines and the eastern slope of the penin- 
sula are Vicols. 

TOWNS. 

The capital, Tayabas, has a population of 16,900. A century ago 
Calanag, on the coast of the Pacific, was the capital. The towns of 
most importance are: Near the Laguna boundary, Mauban, with 10,288 
inhabitants; Lucban, with 11,560; Dolores, with 2,500, and Tiaon, 
with 5,979. On the Pacific coast are: Antimonan, or Lanoon, a town 
situated on an excellent port, with a population of 10,712; Gumaca, 
with 7,431 inhabitants; Calanag, with 2,671, situated on the western 
coast of the peninsula; Guiangan, with 2,216; San Narciso, near the 
southern coast, with 2,064; Mulanay, with 2,464; Catanoan, with 
3,754; Nacalelon, with 3,473; Pitogo, with 2,500; Pagabilao, near 
Tayabas, with 6,152. This province has a total of 20 towns, 425 
villages, and 5 hamlets. 

59 



60 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

LANGUAGES. 

Tagalog is spoken in the western part and Yieol in the eastern part 
of the peninsula of Tayabas. 

PRODUCTS, ENDU8TRTE8, OOMMEBOE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

The forests produce a great variety of excellent woods, especially 
those suitable for shipbuilding. These are sent to tin 4 various parts 
of the Philippines and also to foreign countries. The forests also 
produce large quantities of wax, pitch, tar, rosin, and cobonegro 
wood. There are thousands of head of live stock grazing in the fields. 
Cocoanut oil is manufactured in large quantities. The rice which is 
grown is of excellent quality. The natives manufacture a great many 
Eats, boxes, and various kinds of cloth. The inhabitants of Tayabas 
grow a special kind of seed called lumban, which produces an excellent 
dry oil containing a large amount of oleaginous substance. There are 
a number of dock and ship yards where large numbers of boats for 
the coast trade are built. From dumgal, an exceedingly bitter wood, 
cups are made, in which in a few hours water takes a taste similar to 
quinine, and whose effects are identical with those produced by this 
plant. There are about 300 looms where hemp and pineapple fiber 
cloth an 1 woven. There are about 40 cocoanut oil mills in the prov- 
ince. This province has communication with all the rest of the 
archipelago by sea; by land with the Laguna province by way of 
Lucban. Dolores, and Tiaon; with Camarines by way of Oalanag 
and Gumayangan. There is much trade along the coasts. 

ADJACENT ISLANDS. 
CABALETE ISLAND. 

In front of Point Salag. in the most northern part of the peninsula, 
is (he little island of Cabalete, traversed from northwest to southeast 

by a little mountain range, which is covered with trees and vegetation. 

\1. IBAT ISLAND. 

To the southeast of Cabalete, in the great bay of Malaon, there is an 
island called Alabat, extending from northwest to southeast, Likewise 
traversed by a range of mountains covered with vegetation. Here are 
found many kinds of woods most suitable for building purposes and 
furniture making. The exportation of these woods would undoubtedly 
have been greater were it not that the place is little known, as boats 
seldom go to tin- coast, as it is very dangerous during a part of the 
year. This island is inhabited by a few Tagalog families, who Live in 
\ illages and hamlets along the western coast. The principal of these 

i- Sangirin in the north. In the mountains to the north of this village 

coal i- found. In (he central part of the island the valuable wood 

known :i- oamagOD i- found, and in the southern part silangon. 

PA8I0 [BLAND, 

Near Point Panjan, to the east of Alabat. isthe Little island of Pasig, 

united to Luzon by means of a reef. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 61 

PAGDILAO GRANDE. 

This island is almost united to the coast of Luzon at Point Pua} 7 a 
and forms with this coast the anchorages of Pagdilao on the west and 
that between the islands on the south and the island of Laguimanoc on 
the east. It is triangular in shape, extending about 4 miles from 
north to south and 3 miles from east to west, Mount Mitra tow- 
ering above the rest of the islands. It is surrounded by a little island 
and huge rocks, the most of which are above water at high tide. 

PAGBILAO CHICO. 

This island is situated to the east of Pagdilao Grande and is united 
to it by a narrow sand bar, in which the island terminates on the 
northwest. 

PROVINCE OF AMBOS CAMARINES. 

LIMITS AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY. 

Recently the two provinces of North Camarines and South Cama- 
rines were united into a single province called Ambos Camarines. It 
is bounded on the north by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by Min- 
doro Sea, onthe west by Tayabas, and on the east by Albay and the 
Pacific Ocean or Bay of Lagonoy. The northern part of the province 
is crossed by many large rivers and covered by high mountains having 
luxuriant vegetation on them. These mountains form a chain, which 
is a continuation of that traversing the province of Tayabas. The 
southern part is likewise mountainous, its extensive valleys being 
watered by rivers and creeks which frequently flood the lowlands and 
destroy the crops. There are 18 rivers and 296 creeks in this region. 
The 53 waterfalls, some of them having a fall of 15 meters, prove 
the rugged character of this region. Near the town of Ruba, south of 
the Grotto of Orocosoc, there is a lake having a perimeter of 5,181 
meters and a depth of 3.3-1 meters. There is another lake on Mount 
Hanti from which the waters filter into the Grotto of Calangitan. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The area of Ambos Camarines, including the adjacent islands, is 7,897 
square kilometers, and has a registered population of 191,022. The 
most of these are Vicols, indigenous and ancient people of this region. 
Two tribes of Negritos are found in this province; one in the north, 
not far from the boundaries of Tayabas, in the mountainous region of 
Capolonga, the other in the vicinity of Triga. On the tops of the 
Isarog Mountains there dwell certain savages called Cimarromes del 
Isarog (wild men of Isarog). Some of these are also found in the spurs 
of these mountains, which extend into the so-called peninsula of Cama- 
rines. There are a few Igorrotes on Mount Triga, to the south-south- 
east of Isarog. 

TOWNS. 

The capital is Nueva Caceres, with a population of 7,395. This was 
formerly the seat of the Episcopal see of these islands and is now the 
residence of civil and ecclesiastical authority. It has some fine build- 



62 ftEPORT <>F THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

ings, Buch as the cathedral, the Episcopal palace, the government 
house, the town hall, the Beminary, the hospital, and the girls' school. 
This school is at the same time a normal school for female teachers and 

was founded by His Excellency Senor Grainza (). P. The most impor- 
tant towns are Daet, the former capital of North Camarines, situated 
about a mile and a half from the sea between the Daet River and one 
of its branches, having a population of 10,332; Talisay, to the north- 
west of Daet, has a population of 3,600; Labo, farther inland and also 
to the northwest of Daet. 4,200; Paracale, celebrated for its ancient 
mines,' 3,824. In North Camarines the most important towns are Cara- 
moan, with 6,100 inhabitants; Tinambac, on the southern part of the 
Bay of San Miguel; Laganoy, on the eastern coast of the peninsula, 
with 3,549 inhabitants; San Jose, to the south of Laganoy, with 9,212, 
and Goa, west-northwest of San Jose, with 7, 60S. Along the coast to 
the south are Ragay, with 900, and Pasacao, with" 1,183 inhabitants. 
In tin 1 interior, along the banks of the large river Vicol, there are 
towns of importance, among which may be mentioned Bato.with 5,035 
inhabitants; Minaladac, with 3,869; San Fernando, with 2,844; Camali- 
gan, with 5, 050; Canaman, with 5. 2-L8; Magarao, with 5,293, andCab- 
alanga. not far from the coast and south of the great Bay of San 
Miguel. There are in the province 1 44 towns. 180 villages, and 221 
hamlets. 

LANGUAGES. 

Vicol is generally spoken, though in some places Tagalog is u<r(\. 
The savages and various tribes of Negritos speak their own peculiar 
dialects, although those who come down to tin 4 towns to trade under- 
stand and speak Vicol. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRIES, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

The foresi products are woods of excellent quality suitable for 
building, such as baticulin, molave. and narra in tin 1 northern part, 
and. anajan, cedro, mangachapuy, nava. palo-maria, tindole, acle, 
balete, bagainto, camagon, jaral, and also narra and molave in the 
southern part. The forests also produce resins, pitch, tar. and large 
quantities of wax and honey. Among mineral products are gold. 
Silver, iron. lead, and copper, which are found in the mines worked at 
Mambulao and those at Paracale. In tin 4 southern part there are 
mines of pit coal. Marble and gypsum quarries are also found. In 
the southern part there are no mines known, hut many of the rivers 
carry gold. Agriculture is well advanced, hemp being the especial 
object of cultivation. Rice and sugar are produced, and are. articles 
of export, [n the center of the peninsula of Camarines is the majestic 
mountain of Isarog, inhabited by pagans. 

To the south and west of this mountain are extensive and fertile 
valleys, where excellent rice, chocolate superior to that from the 
Moluccas, coin. hemp, sugar cane, and all kinds of bananas are grown, 
ttiere arc alcohol distilleries, sugar mills, and refineries; distilleries 
for the manufacture of the essence ^( ilang-ilang ; sih ersmiths 3 shops, 
shoe shops, and looms, especially those for the manufacture o\' sinamay 
and guinaras. There are lao hemp presses, brickyards, and fisheries. 
There i- an abundance of ii\ ( . stock of all kinds, particularly buffalos 
and hog-. Ways of communication in the interior are very lew, espe- 






REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 63 

cially in the north, where there are four cart roads. One of these 
runs parallel to the coast of the Bay of Ragay and communicates with 
the province of Tayabas. It continues as far as Daet, on the Pacific 
coast, and from there goes to Indan. There is communication by sea 
with the entire archipelago. In the south the ways of communication 
between the towns and with the rest of the archipelago are better and 
more numerous. From Port Pasacao one can easily go to Nueva 
Caceres, and from there in every direction, there being communication 
with Albay from Triga to Polonguy, and from Tigaon to Sangay. 

ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

There are many islands adjacent to the coast of this province, 
especially on the north. The principal ones are as follows: To the 
north of Daet are the Calagnas islands, a group composed of various 
inhabited islands covered with vegetation. The largest of these, 4 
kilometers long by 1£ kilometers wide, is 22 kilometers from the 
coast. The islands which border this island, known as Tinaga, are 
Pinaguapan, Samar, Maculad, Ingatan, Siata, Cagbalisan, and Calagua. 
To the north of Mambulao and of Capalonga there is a multitude of 
islands and rock, which render navigation along this coast most diffi- 
cult. To the northeast of Indan is the small island of Quinamanocan, 
which is covered with vegetation. Canino, Canton, and a multitude 
of other small islands constitute a group to the east of Daet at the 
entrance of the Bay of San Miguel. The little island of Can it is found 
at the head of this bay, and near its eastern coast, to the north, is the 
small island of San Miguel. The coast of the peninsula of South 
Camarines is bordered by as many small islands, as may be seen in 
Chapter I, which discusses the configuration of Luzon. 

PROVINCE OF ALBAY. 

BOUNDARIES AM) GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY. 

The modern and commercial province of Albay, near the extreme 
southeast of Luzon, is bounded on the north by Camarines, on the 
east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by Sorsogon and the Mindoro 
Sea, and on the west by the Mindoro Sea and Ambos Camarines. The 
country is rugged and volcanic. A chain of mountains traverses the 
province from east to west, the majestic volcano of Mayon or Albay 
rising not far from the eastern coast of the Bay of Albay. It is situ- 
ated about 20 miles from the sea. From the mountains arise number- 
less rivers which fertilize the valleys and plains. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The area of this province, including the island of Catanduanes and 
those contiguous to Luzon, is 4,123 kilometers. There are 195,129 
inhabitants, the great majority being Vicols. 

TOWNS. 

The capital, Albay, situated on the bay of the same name not far 
from Mayon volcano, has a population of 10,600. It has fine houses, 
with a church, town hall, parochial residence, and other well-con- 



C>4 BEPOBT OF THE PIIILI I'l'INE COMMISSION. 

structed public buildings. On the eastern coast the town- of most 
importance, beginning at the north, arc: Tivi. noted for its springs, 
has a population of 10,447; Malinao, to the south of the great Bay of 
Lagonoy and to the southeast of Tivi. with a population of 11,849. 
Tobaco. to the southeast of Malinao, with a population of 18,000, is 
situated on the bay of the same name. It is a much used port, and 
lias on its shores tin 1 towns of Malilipot, with a population of 5,858, 
and Bagacay, with a population of 11,379. On the northern coast of 
the Bay of Albay is Libog, with a population of 5,751. It is just 
south of the port called Sula and is very well protected. Legaspi, to 
the northeast of Albay, with a population of 6,830, is also a much fre- 
quented port. Manito, on the eastern coast of the Bay of Paliqui, has 
a population of 2,30!). Near the boundary of Ambos Camarines are 
the portsof Libong, with a population of 5,449; Polangui, with 1<».<>47; 
Ligao, to the southeast of Polangui and farther in the interior, has a 
population of 17,900. Between Ligao and Polangui is the important 
town of Oas, with 15,987 inhabitants. Guinobatan, to the southeast of 
Ligao and to the west of Legaspi, with 20,414; Cagsaua, just to the 
west <>f Albay, 22,000; Camalig, Avest of Cagsaua. 15,853. There i- a 
total of 23 towns and 260 villages. 

LANGUAGES. 

Vieol is spoken almost exclusively. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

A great advance has been made by this province on account of its 
richness in hemp, which is cultivated here in a Special manner. Tin 4 
value of the annual product is about $4,750,217. The ordinary fruits 
of the country are produced here. The industries are the production 
of cloth from abaca and oil from the cocoanut. The principal part of 
the commerce consists in the exportation of the hemp fiber, there being 
370,400 pieuls exported, whose value is about 13,700,000, this having 
risen within a few years from a value of $2,000,000. A considerable 
amount of sinamay cloth is made here, and there are besides other 
industries of minor importance. There are several shipyards, which 
manufacture small coasting vessels, and where a large amount of the 
valuable woods produced by the forests is utilized. There are besides 
some coal mines and gold, silver, and iron mines in operation, and 
some abandoned quicksilver mines. The principal ways of communi- 
cation are by the carriage roads which extend from Albay to all of 
the important towns of the province. There are four telegraph 
stations. 

ADJACENT I si. an ns. 

Speaking of the configuration of the Island <A' Luzon in the first 

chapter, we indicated certain islands adjacent to the coast o\' this great 

island; we w ill now speak briefly of some o( the principal ones o( these 
situated to the east of the bays of Albay and Tobaco: 

l-l. \\ i« or i; kPUB \ri . 

This is an island of considerable elevation, and triangular in shape. 

The \ illage of Santo hdoiont in:» i- Located about the center oi' the south 

Coast, and i- the onl\ town oil the island. Coal i- found here, 




p c — vol 3 — 01 9 



Report of the Philippine commission. 65 



BATAN ISLAND. 



This island, like Rapurapu, is about 2 miles wide at its broadest 
part. The only important town which is worth naming is Batan, on 
the western coast. There are several coal mines here. 



CACNARY ISLAND. 



This island, situated to the west of Batan, is very similar to the two 
already described. There is no town of importance. 

ISLAND OF SAN MIGUEL. 

This is the smallest of the named islands, situated to the east of 
Tobaco, and is surrounded by reefs, like all the rest. 

PROVINCE OR DISTRICT OF THE ISLAND OF CATANDUANES. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE COUNTRY. 

This island, situated to the east of the peninsula of Ambos Cama- 
rines, extends from north to south, and is surrounded by the waters of 
the Pacific Ocean. On the west is the channel or strait of Maqueda, 
which separates it from Luzon. The soil is very much broken and 
mountainous and very fertile, being' watered by many small rivers. 
From east to west in its greatest breadth it measures about 40 kilo- 
meters and from north to south about 70 kilometers. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

Its area is 1,676 square kilometers, and its population 33,310, the 
greater part of whom present many points in common with the 
Visayas, according to the testimony of the first missionaries who con- 
verted them to the Christian faith. 

TOWNS. 

The capital is Virac, situated on the south coast of the Bay of 
Cabagas, which has a population of 6,843. Calolbon, also on the south 
coast, has a population of 4,201. Pandan, in the extreme north of the 
island, has 2,500 inhabitants. Payo, to the south of the bay called 
"The South Anchorage," and Biga, near Paj^o, have together a popula- 
tion of some 3,252. There is a total of 29 towns and 10 established 
hamlets. 

LANGUAGES. 

Vicol is spoken. 

PRODUCTS AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

The principal products are rice, corn, hemp, indigo, cocoanuts, and 
fine building woods. The natives wash a considerable amount of gold 
from the sands of the rivers. There is communication between the 
towns of Virac and Cololbon with Bato. 



(W; Ki.i'oirr 6F tiik Philippine commission. 

ADJACENT [SLANDS. 

The most important of these are Panay, in the Bay of Payo; Biga 
and Tambongon,to the north; also Balumbanes, with the small group 
of islands. In the front of Carao, toward the north, there is a small 
island of little importance. 

PROVINCE OF SORSOGON. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF TIIK COUNTKT. 

The new province of Sorsogon is situated in the southeastern e xt rem- 
it v of the island of Luzon, and is hounded on the north by the province 
of Albay and the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Strait of San 
Bernardino, on the east by the Pacific Ocean and the Oton or interior 
sea of the archpielago. The character of the country is similar to 
that in the province of Albay. The most southern part forms a 
peninsula, from tin 4 center of which rises the volcano of Bulusan, 
which is the origin of many small mountain ranges, which form the 
sources of the rivers which water the extensive and fertile valleys. 

AREA AM) INHABITANTS. 

Ther area is 1,954 square kilometers the population 98,650, almost 

all of the Yicol race. 

TOWNS. 

Sorsogon is the capital of this new province. The port of Sorsogon 
i- the besl of all those found between the Strait of \ erdi Islands and 
that of San Bernardino, and is suitable for all kinds of ships. It is 
an excellent refuge for ships which in the Marinduque Sea have been 
surprised by squalls or typhoons, which usually pass to the north of 
the Strait of Ticao. and for ships which have been damaged in passing 
through the Strait of San Bernardino. The entrance to the bay lying- 
bet ween Point Bantique on the west and that of Bagatao on the east 
contains the islands of Bagatao and Malamahuan. which divide 1 it into 
three channels, the one between the two islands, being the principal 
one. and the only practicable one for all kinds of ships. That which is 
called the Boco-cnica, to the east of the island of Bagatao. is very 
narrow, having a rock located on the southern side, and to pass this 

even with small .steam launches it is necessary to run very close to the 
shore of Bagatao, which is clear and with a depth of from L3 to 15 
meters of water, this not being true of the opposite side. The channel 
found between the island of Luzon and Malamahuan. although having 
;i depth of from .'• t<» 8 meters, is very narrow, and still worse than the 
one already mentioned. The coast and islands on the other side are 
clear, and the islands which appear on the north abrupt, especially 
on the outer side, so thai navigation through the middle o\' the channel 

ifi tic- from all danger. 

I he r>a\ of Sorsogon, which is entered after passing the entrance, 

; acious and L9 miles in w idtfa from the east-northeast to the vicinity 

ol the town ol Sorsogon. Soundings diminish progressively from 17 

to 5 meters, the bottom being muddy. To the the north of this bay 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 67 

there is a fine gulf, having a depth of 7i meters, with muddy bottom 
all over. The coast of Casiguran, to the south of Sorsogon, is notable 
for the malformation, which is seen, according to the best data obtaina- 
ble, for a long while. It has sunk about eighty -four one-hundredths of 
a meter annually. The population is 10,700. 

Around the Bay of Sorsogon are situated Tuban, with 5,555 inhabit- 
ants; Catilla, with 2,069; Magallanes, at the entrance of the ba} r , with 
2,928; Pilar, or Port Putiao, on the western coast, with a population of 
9,127; Donsol, near to the boundaries of Albay, with 4,682; Bulan, 
near the southern part of the peninsula, with 5,545; Matnog, on the 
Pacific coast, with 2,320; Bulusan, with 5,113; Barcelona, with 4,947, 
and Cubat, one of the finest towns of the province, with 12,590. There 
is a total of 16 towns, 131 villages, and numerous hamlets. 

LANGUAGES. 

The language is Vicol. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

The principal products, apart from building woods, which are found 
in the mountains, are hemp and copra, both articles of exportation. 
The industries are in about the same condition as in the province of 
Albay. There are various mines, not worked. The principal towns 
are connected by cart roads and paths; one leads to Labay from Pilar. 

ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

The Islands near to the coast of this province are of little importance. 
Several are seen to the southeast of the central part of the province 
north of the Strait of San Bernardino. The others are enumerated 
and described in Chapter T, 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE ISLANDS ADJACENT TO LUZOX. 

[Mape NTos. 18, 15, and 17. of the Atlas of the Philippines.] 

THE BATANES GROUP. 

BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTKY. 

To the north of Luzon and south-southeast of Formosa arc the two 
groups of islands called the Bataues and the Babuyanes, the latter 
nearest to the north of Luzon. 

BATANES. 

The most important islands of this group are Basay or Batan, Saptan, 
and [tbayat. The northern islands near Formosa, called Jamia and 
Norte, terminate the group. There are other islands of little impor- 
tance, or uninhabited, such as Siayan, Diogo, Misanga, Dequez, 
Mabudis, and Diamis, or the Diami rocks. 

BABUYANES. 

The second group consists of the islands of Calayan, the largest of 
all, the name which has been given to the group on account of the 
abundance of hogs (babuyes in Tagalog meaning nogs). 

Other islands of fair size are Camiguin, Dalupiri, Fuga, and Font. 
Those farthest distant from Luzon are the two called Bakngtan, which 
give name to the channel, which is between the Babuyanes and the 
island of Saptan. the most southern of the Batanes. Some authors 
include Balington with the Batanes. 

[SL \n I) OF B \s\V OB BATAN. 

The most important of the Batanes measures 20 kilometers from 

north to soutb and 1 kilometers from east to west. In the northern 

part rises Mount Irada, which seems to be volcanic. The country is 
mountainous, but baa large cultivated plains. 

SAPTAN [STAND. 

A.1 about 6 kilometers to the southwest of Basay rises the island of 
Saptan, which bas an area of about half that of the preceding island. 
It has the same general conditions of country, 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 69 

ISLAND OF ITBAYAT. 

This island is situated to the northwest of Basay at a distance of about 
20 miles; it is a very fertile island, and the largest of the Batanes, 
almost a half larger than Basay. 

ISLAND OF DALUPIRI. 

This is the most western of the Babuyanes Islands, and is situated 
about 25 miles northeast of Point Cabicungan, of Luzon. It is regular 
in aspect and about 8 miles long. 

FUGA ISLAND. 

This island is situated 9 miles to the south-southeast of Dalupiri, is 
also flatter than that island, and extends from east to west a distance of 
10£ miles. This island is known on account of the port of Musa, 
situated on the western side. 

ISLAND OF CALAYAN. 

This island is situated 13 miles to the east of Dalupiri, and is larger 
and of greater elevation than the island of Fuga. It is composed of 
mountainous and low lands, and its greatest elevation is in the center 
of the island. It is cut in certain places by deep valleys. It extends 
from east to west a distance of about 10 miles. There is a fair bay on 
the south coast. 

THE BABUYANES OR ILARO ISLANDS. 

BABUYAN. 

This island lies farthest to the northeast, and is the highest of all the 
group. It is situated about 25 miles east-northeast from Calayan. 
There is a volcano situated at the western extremity of the island. 

CAMIGUIN ISLAND. 

This island is very mountainous and high, especially on the north- 
east. It is about 12 miles long from north-northeast to south-south- 
west, and is situated about 32 miles south one-fourth southwest of 
Claro Babuyan. It is known on account of the volcano, called Cami- 
guin. Seven and a half miles to the east, one-fourth southeast of the 
northeastern point of Camiguin, arise the two rocks called Guinapac. 
They present the appearance of two towers, and are surrounded by 
various little islands. To the northeast of these rocks are four others 
called Didicas, more elevated than the preceding and surrounded by 
various smaller rocks, and a little island about 60 meters in height, and 
less than a mile in circumference, forms a group with these rocks. On 
the northern coast there is an active volcano. 

FONT ISLAND. 

This island has a diameter of 1£ miles; it is high and very rugged 
on the west, and uninhabited the greater part of the year. 



7() REPOBT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

TOWNS. 

Xhe towns of greatest importance in the Batanes are Santo Doming) 
,1,. Baseo, the head town, with a population oi 2,652. It is situated at 
the fool of Mni.ni Erraya, and is surrounded by the best land in the 
Batanes this being level and picturesque. It contains some fine 
buildings The porl is excellent and very safe, except during the 
west monsoon. To the south of Santo Domingo, about 5 kilonaeters 
distanl is Magatao. a town of L,195 inhabitants; it has the best church 
in fche Batanes, and a port suitable for small vessels. At a distance ot 
2 kilometers from this town is Ibana, with a population of 1,914; ban 
Vincente, with a population of 1,935, is the only town on the island of 
Saptan although the entire island is bordered with little villages. 
Maya the only town of Itbayat, with a population of L,080, is situ- 
ated on most* fertile ground, and not far from forests containing 
excellent woods for furniture making, but of little value tor building 

purposes. , _ r ,, . , , - 

In the Babuyanes the principal towns are Musa, on the island ot 
Juga, and Calayan, on the island of the same name, situated near to 
the east of the center of the coast, and which has a population ot o8±. 
On Camiguin Island there are several small hamlet-. 

LANGUAGES. 

The native inhabitants speak their own language, Batan. which must 
not be confounded with Ebanag, although it is somewhat similar to it. 

PRODUCTS, COMMERCE, INDUSTRY, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

The Batanes, with the exception of Itbayat, are lacking in building 
woods; on the other hand, there is an abundance of lime. sand, and 
stone for building materials. The principal products are ube. sweet 
potatoes, corn, a little rice, and some sugar cane, which is used forthe 
manufacture of the wine known as "palec." There is not a great 
va.net} of fruits, although the pineapples of Batanes are so fine that 
they are superior in size and quality to those produced in other parts 
Of the archipelago. Potatoes. rice,and vegetables found in Spam grow- 
well here. The principal industry is grazing, which assumes large 
proportions. Groats, horses, and hogs are raised and exported in large 
numbers. There is a large exportation o\' lard. In the vicinity of the 
towns are large cocoanul groves, especially near to Itbayat, the oil 
being exported to Manila. 

Communication between the various islands is most difficult on 
account of the strong currents in the channels and the lack of anchor- 
ages. Communication with the rest of the archipelago is still more 
difficult. 



illi \ \Miii ISLANDS. 



These constitute a Little group of islands to the north. They are 
\cn small in size and are trulj isles. The principal ones, commenc- 
a'hIi those nearest to the Batanes, are Siayam, Mabudis Tanem, 
M:.\ -,,!•_•.. and Jami. All of these islands, with the exception i^ the 
last, are within sight of the Batanes. The most important o\' them is 
Jami, inhabited, according to the Batanes, by savages and pagans of 



EEPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 71 

the Vaschi race. It is not known whether the language spoken is 
derived from the Batan language or is peculiar to the inhabitants. In 
the northwest the inhabitants of the Batanes and of the Vaschi Islands 
understand each other, perhaps on account of certain words in com- 
mon. No Spanish officer or missionary has ever visited these islands. 1 



ISLAND OF MINDORO AND ADJACENT ISLANDS. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

This island is the sixth in size of the islands of the Philippine Archi- 
pelago. It is situated to the south of Luzon. On the western coast 
it is bounded by the China Sea, forming, with the Calamianes, the 
strait of Mindoro, which is divided into two channels by the Apo 
banks; toward the north it is separated from the coast of Luzon by 
the Isla Verdi Strait, and is bounded on the east by the Visayas Sea, 
and on the south by the sea of Mindoro. The country is mountainous 
and the vegetation exuberant. It produces excellent building woods 
and contains also copper mines and sulphur. It is the least exploited 
in the interior of all the islands. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The area, including the adjacent islands, is 10,167 kilometers. There 
are 67,656 registered inhabitants, including unconquered pagans, who 
inhabit the interior, whose population would, without doubt, exceed 
106,200. The principal race inhabiting the interior is the Manginanes, 
whose customs are very savage and primitive. Some suppose that the 
Manguianes are only those pagans who dwell in the mountains near 
Mangarin, and that the rest of the inhabitants of the interior belong 
to the Bangot, Buguil, Tadianan, Durugmunan Beribi, Buctulan, Tiron, 
and Lactan tribes. There are some authors, among them Blumentritt, 
who believe that Negritos live in the vicinity of Halcon. 

TOWNS. 

The capital town is Calapan, situated on the north coast, on the little 
peninsula, and has a population of 5,953. On the same coast is Puerto 
Galera, which is famous on account of its safe harbor, and has a popu- 
lation of 1,700. Naujan has a population of 5,200; Pola, on the west- 
ern coast, northeast of Mangarin and Tabayan, is situated at the head 
of a magnificent bay, and has a population of 2,000; Mamburao and 
Paluan, on the western coast, toward the northwest of the islands, are 
also towns of importance. All the towns in the island are situated 
near the coast. 

LANGUAGES. 

Tagalog is spoken in the northern part, Visayan in the southern, 
and Manguian in the central part of the island. 

1 The greater part of the data in reference to the Batanes and Vaschi islands is 
taken from a letter from Father Anastasio Idigoras, O. P. , published in Nos. 138, 139, 
140, 141, and 142 of the " Policy of Spain in the Philippines." 



72 REPORT OF THK PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

The immense forests of this island contain all kinds of woods, palm-, 
and bamboos, although but little profit is derived from them on account 
of the lack of people to work them. Among the trees found may he 
mentioned calinga, a species of cinnamon. Near the principal towns 
woodcutting is carried on in the adjacent forests, and during the last 
few years a considerable quantity of wood has been exported to 
Manila. Most of the wood is cut near the towns of Paluan, Mam- 
burao, Itinun. Bulalacao, Pola, Pinamalayan, Naujan, and the capital; 
and the traffic is carried on by a small number of ships running to 
Manila and Batangas. The town of Pola has extensive nipa groves, 
whose products are exported to the provinces of Batangas, Tayabas, 
and the island of Marinduque. Rattan, diliman, rajas, buri, and wax. 
which is obtained from the towns of Puerto Galera, Paluan. and Mam- 
burao; tortoise shell, which is obtained from the little bordering 
islands; large canoes, made from a single piece of wood, which are 
constructed in the towns of Baco and Sabuaan; sibucao. which is 
exported from Puerto Galera; balao oil, pitch, nigui, and cabonegro 
are the principal articles of export. The cultivation of hemp is 
increasing rapidly, although at the present time but little is gathered; 
and within the last few years some attention has been given to the 
cultivation of sugar cane in the vicinity of Oalapan. Abra de Hog 
and Mamburao have given good results in the cultivation of this 
article, as last year 1,200 piculs were exported. The cultivation of 
tobacco, long established in the towns of Sablayan and Santa Cruz, 
produces a good quality similar to that of the Igorrotes. Cotton is 
quite abundantly produced, but is utilized only by the natives them- 
selves, no exportation taking place, except to the island of Iting. 
Grazing in Mindoro is scarcely worthy of mention, except that it 
exists in the towns of Abra de Hog, Naujan. and Mangarin. The live 
stock raised is used only for home consumption, perhaps on account 
of lack of suitable ships for exportation. 

There is found in the forests of Mindoro an indigenous animal 
called the tamarao a species of buffalo or carabao. but -mailer and 
very ferocious. Its horns are straight and not semilunar, as in the 
carabao. It is hunted with Lassoes and lances, and in the attack a 
thrust is made for the eyes or the chest. Hut any method of hunting 
this animal is very dangerous, and the natives do not expose them- 
selves to it. except when it is necessary to protect their crops. 

Of the mineral products of this island nothing is known except in 
regard to sulphur, which is found in large quantities in the town of 
Sllbaan, and gypsum, which is found at Naujan, and Hint, which is 
exported from Bac6. 

The ways of communication are almost all by sea. and are danger- 
ous, although it i- possible to go by land from the bead town to the 
towns on the eastern coast pf the island. It is preferable, however, 
t<» go b\ sea, a- the rugged character <^\' the country and the many 

river-, which are crossed only with danger on account <A' the croco- 
diles, and the mountains make the journey by land exceedingly ditli- 

Cult. The towns of (he north and west can communicate with the 

capital onl\ by sea, as no road- by land exist on account o( the rugged 
mountain chain- between Puerto Galera and Subaan. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 73 



ISLANDS ADJACENT TO MINDORO. 



The principal islands adjacent to Mindoro are, on the northwest, the 
Lubang group; on the northeast, the Maranduque group; on the 
southwest, the Iling group; and, on the south, the Semaraza group. 



LUBANG GROUP. 



The island of Lubang is the largest, most important, and only 
inhabited one of this group. It is 16 miles in length from northwest 
to southeast and ± miles in breadth, and has many indentations on the 
coast, among them the safe harbor of Tilig and several bays more or 
less protected. The land in the interior as far north as the parallel of 
Tilig is low and level, and from this point south broken and moun- 
tainous, the highest mountain being near Gontin, on the western 
coast, south-southeast of the town of Lubang. 



This town, situated on the northern coast 2 miles from Point Sala, 
has a population of 6,516. The inhabitants are mostly Tagalogs, 
engaged in agricultural pursuits, hunting, and fishing. During certain 
seasons of the year a large number of turtles' eggs and eggs of the 
brush turkey are found along the shores. These are used as food by the 
natives. The other islands of the group are Ambil, to the east of 
Lubang; the Talinas islands, to the south of the bay of Loog, on the 
southeastern part of the island; Mandani, a mile to the north of Ambil; 
Malabatuan, a little island also to the north of Ambil; Cabra, the most 
western of the group, having a length of 2 miles from northwest to 
southeast, where a light-house of the first class is situated, and Golo, 
the most eastern island. 

MARINDUQUE GROUP. 

The principal island is Marinduque, situated to the northeast of 
Mindoro and south of Luzon. It is almost circular in shape, 25 miles 
in diameter, mountainous, and quite high, having a range on its eastern 
side, which runs from north to south, formed by the Tapian, San Anto- 
nio, and Marlanga mountains. The land is fertile, although watered 
by small rivers only. The principal product of the island is rice. 
There are two ports, San Andreas on the northwest, and Santa Cruz 
on the northeast, and a few bays on the southeastern and western 
coasts, which offer fairly safe anchorages, according to the prevailing 
monsoon and the condition of the sea. 

The most important towns are Boac, with a population of 15,000, 
and Santa Cruz de Napo, Avith a population of 15,600. Large quanti- 
ties of rice are exported. The inhabitants are almost all Tagalogs. 

The principal of the adjacent islands are the group Tres Reyes to the 
southwest of Mompog, Manina}/an to the northeast, and San Andreas 
and some smaller islands to the northwest. 

ILING GROUP. 

Iling, the principal island of the group, has a length of 10 miles 
from the northwest to the southeast, and is shaped like an elongated 
triangle. The land is high and mountainous. All of the eastern coast 



7 1 REPORT <>K THK PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

is high and covered with trees and extensive mangrove swamps, which 
reach to the shore 3 excepl al the point on the southeast just opposite 
a rough and jagged rock. The only town, called Ding, has a popula- 
tion of 500 Tagalogs and Visayans engaged in fishing. Their food is 
mostly fish, turtle, and bolate (sea cucumbers). 

Just in front of the middle of the eastern coast is the island of 
Ambolan, which is of medium height and surrounded with reefs. 

SEMERARA [SLANDS. 

These islands include the islands of Semerara. Nagubat, Libagao, 
Sibolon, Sibaton, Caluya, Sibay, and Panagatan. Semerara. situated 
s miles southeast of Point Burancan. southern extremity of Mindoro, 
i- s.l miles in length from north-northwest to south-southeast and 4£ 
miles wide on the south, its point of greatest breadth. The island is 
mountainous, but of medium height, and has irregular coasts. It has 
one town or village situated in the northeastern part, inhabited by 150 
people, who are engaged in collecting the sea cucumbers from the 
shallows which surround the hay. The channel between this island 
and Mindoro is free from rocks, and deep, according to the testimony 
of Captain Villavieincio, who was chief of the hydrographic commis- 
sion of the Philippines. Coal is found in these islands near the shore 
at a depth of 1 foot. In the northern part it is of good quality; in the 
southern part of but medium grade. 



This is a small island situated a mile northeast of Semerara. and is 
of medium height. 

CALVY A. 

This island is 84 miles to the east of Semerara, and 4 miles long 
from north to south and U miles broad. The southern part is quite 
elevated, reaching a height of 190 meters above the sea level. 



The island of Sibolon is 10J miles east of Semerara and 6 miles north 
of Sibato and is surrounded bv reefs. 



Sibay, 7\ miles to the southeast of Semerara and -JA miles from 
Caluya, is a small island 65 meters in height. 

THE l' W<. WT \\ ISL IND8. 

These are little isles and reefs south-southwest o\' Semerara and 7 
miles from Cebu. The channel between the most eastern islands of 
this group, Semerara, and the northwestern extremity of Panay i> 1 ( .» 

miles Wide and vn\ deep. 

Island OF BURIA8. 
BOl NDARTES wi> GENERAL CONDITION or THE COUNTRY. 

This island forms a comandancia. It is narrow and long, extending 
from north northwest t<> south southeast, and is situated in the strait 
which separates Masbate from A.mbos Camarines. To the north and 



EEPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 75 

northeast is the island of Luzon and to the southeast the island of 
Ticao. The interior is mountainous and craggy, and from the center 
rises Mount Enganoso. A mountain range traverses the island from 
northwest to southeast. Toward the southwest is the little island of 
Gorion, which seems to be a continuation of this mountain range. 
On the northeastern and western coasts there are some level lands 
which are under cultivation. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The island has an area of 292 square kilometers, and a population of 
1,703, almost all Vicols. At the beginning of the century this island 
was inhabited by Moros. 

TOWN. 

The only town is San Pascual, on the northwestern extremity of the 
island. It has a port fronting the little island of Busin, and is sur- 
rounded by a multitude of islands and shoals, forming narrow chan- 
nels. It has, together with the village of Claveria, a population of 
1,600, who, with the few others in the five little villages not far dis- 
tant, constitute the total population of the island. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE. 

The extensive forests of this island produce fine building woods, but 
on account of the difficulty of getting them out they are not worked. 
Tobacco is produced in small quantities; also hemp, sugar cane, choco- 
late, rice, and cocoanuts. There is an abundance of live stock, which is 
exported to Manila. The only industry is the manufacture of bayones, 
sugar sacks of buri, a palm which is very abundant in the forest, and 
which has given its name to the island. 

THE ISLANDS OF MASBATE AND TICAO. * 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

The island of Masbate is bounded on the north by the Strait of San 
Bernardino and by the seas which bathe the shores of Burias, Cebu, 
Panay, and Romblon. It extends from northwest to southeast for a dis- 
tance of 72 miles, and is triangular in shape. It is very mountainous, 
there being a high central chain which follows a semicircular direction 
and terminates in the .southwestern and southeastern points of the 
island, throwing out spurs to the northwest, which go to form Point 
Bugni. Other points of less importance are likewise formed by spurs 
from this chain. 

TICAO 

Is 21 miles in length from northwest to southeast and I miles wide. 
It is situated to the west of the coast of Albay. The land is covered 
with vegetation and is very fertile. Its principal ports, although none 
of them are good, are San Miguel and San Jacinto. Ticao divides the 
channel of the same name into two channels — that on the west, formed 
with Masbate, 65 miles wide in its narrowest point, and that on the west 
of Luzon, which is 8i miles wide and is most frequented by ships. 



76 REPOBT OF TIIK PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

Masbate and Tieao have an area of 3,897 square kilometers, and 
21,366 registered inhabitants. Those in the central part are V icols 

and those in the south Visayans. 

TOWNS. 

Palanoc, situated on the bay of the same name, is the capital; it has a 

population of 2,900. Baleno, on the eastern coast, 3 miles northwest of 
the port of Magdalena, has a population of 2,500. On the bays of 
I 'son and Nara there are towns of medium size, as well as on the bay 
or port of Calingan on the eastern coast. Milagros is another small 
town, having a population of 3,441. There are but few inhabitants 
on the south and west of the island. 

In Tieao the principal town is San Jacinto, on the port of the 
same name; it has a population of 2,824, and is a fairly good port. 

LANGUAGES. 

Although tin 1 population is fairly homogeneous, the same can not 
he said of the language. Vicol, Tagolog, and Yisaya are spoken. 
according to the distances of the towns from the mother provinces of 
these dialects. Thus, in Baleno and Luang, Tagalog is spoken by 
preference; in Tieao and Uson, Vicol; and in Palanac. Calingan and 
Milagros Yisaya. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE. 

The agricultural products, although in general like those of the rest 
of the archipelago, are very few; this being especially true of rice, 
which has to he imported, sugar cane, cotton, chocolate, and hemp. 
In Magdalena, Masbate, Calingan, and San Jacinto tobacco is produced; 
in quality it is very strong, and, though much valued by the Vicols, 
brings hut a low price in Manila. One of the chief sources of wealth 
is grazing, which has increased greatly during the last few years. 
Industry is limited to the gathering of forest products, to fisheries, 
hunting, weaving, and the manufacture of palm mats, which, on account 
of the excellence of the work and the durability of the colors, have 
attracted attention from European expositions. Commerce is limited 
to the exportation of agricultural and forest products and cattle, ami 
the importation of rice and groceries from Europe. Tin 4 natives col- 
lect some gold from the sands in the rivers. 

ADJACENT islands. 

San Miguel and Mataban are, respectively, northwest and southeast 

of Tieao. There i- a small island in the port of Barrera, in the north 
of Masbate; also the island of Deagais, in the Hay o\' Nara; the 
island «•!' Bugton, in the port of Calaingan; the island of Nara. 

:it the entrance of the hay of the same nana- Asid. to the south of 

Masbate; the Zapato and Lmtotolo Islands, to the southwest oi Point 
Pulanduta. On the western coast are the islands o^ the Hay of Nin. 

M:ipa\ agnan. and Majaha. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 77 



CALAMIANES AND CUYOS ISLANDS. 

The Calamianes and Cuyos islands are usually grouped by authors 
under the name of "Calamianes." According to this, the Calamianes 
include a group of more than 100 islands, situated between Paragua 
on the southeast, Mindoro on the north, Panay on the east, and the 
Mindoro Sea on the south. All of these islands are, in general, 
mountainous and rugged and covered with vegetation. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The total area of these groups is 1,600 square miles, and the total 
number of registered inhabitants 14,291. They are for the most part 
Visayans and the Calamianes, or Tagbanuas. The mountains of the 
large islands of Calimian and Busuanga are inhabited by pagans, 
probably of the Negrito race. The island of Agutaya, in the Cuyos 
group, is inhabited by the Agutainos, a special Malayan race. 

ISLANDS AND TOWNS. 

The principal islands are: Calibangbagan, situated 8 miles east of the 
northern point of Paragua; it is 2i miles long from northwest to 
southeast. 

LINACAPAN. 

This is the largest of the numerous group, situated between the 
northeast coast of Paragua and the island of Calimian, at a distance of 
12 miles from the latter; it is 10 miles in length from north to south, 
and its north coast forms two deep bays. On the eastern side are seen 
various bold conical-formed points. In an angle to the southwest 
there is the little town of San Nicolas. 

CABULUAN ISLANDS. 

This is a little group situated to the southeast, 14 miles from the 
point northeast of Linacapan. It is composed of two large islands 
and a number of small islands and rocks. 

NONGALAO, 

To the northeast of Cabualauan, is of medium height and is formed 
of a central hill. 

MALUBUTGLUBUT 

Is situated 10 miles to the east northeast of the island of Culili and 
is the most northwestern of the Linacapan Islands. 

NANGA ISLAND 

Is situated between the islands of Malubut and Calibangbagan. 
p c— vol 3—01 10 



7S REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

BUBTJ LNGA, 

the largest one of the Calamianes (iron]), is about 34 miles Long from 
northwest, one-fourth west to southeast, one-fourth cast, and is L8 
miles wide in its broadest part. It is very irregular in shape, and its 
COastfl are indented by numerous deep gulfs and hays. Its northeast 
coast, with the multitude of little islands near it. forms the west coast 
of the channel west of Apo. The island i< mountainous, little populated, 
and little cultivated, although its soil is fertile and suitable for the 
cultivation of the usual products of the archipelago, but its inhabit- 
ants, almost all united i 1 1 the town of Busuanga, occupy themselves 
principally in gathering sea cucumbers and collecting nests of salan- 
ganes. 

rsoN. 

This island is situated at the western entrance of the strait of Coron 
and extends from « j ast to west a distance of 4 miles, being H miles 
broad at its widest part. It is surrounded by little islands and reef-. 

PEN OX DE CORON. 

This island is situated to the southwest of Busuanga: it is very high, 
rocky, and without vegetation. It measures 11 miles from north to 
sou tli and ±k miles from east to west. 

CULION. 

This island, also called Calamian. is situated southwest of Busuanga, 
from which it is separated by a channel 3 or 4 miles wide. The 
chief town is Culion. situated on the northeast coast, on a point 
north of a good port, and has a population of 2,100. The soil is very 
fertile, but tin 1 inhabitants cultivate it but little, raising only a small 
amount of rice and occupying themselves almost exclusively in gath- 
ering sea cucumbers, birds' nests, and wax, which latter N o\' superior 
quality. Allot" the islands of the Calamianes Group abound in rep- 
tiles, deer, wild hogs, and birds, which destroy the crops. The bamboo 
of this island is of a special kind. 

OUYOS [8LANDS. 

These islands are situated to the south of Mindoro, halfway 
between the west coast of Panay and the northeast coast o\' Paragua. 
They form a proup composed of a multitude of high and rocky islands 
and isles which occupy a sea space approximately circular and 45 

mile- in diameter. 

CI vo. 

This island i- also called "Gran Cuyo;" it extend- from northeast to 
southwest a distance of 71 miles, being l miles in breadth; a little 
mountain .•bain divides it longitudinally. On the western coast i- 
situated the town of Cuyo. the capital of all the Calamianes, considered 
politically. It ha- a population of ik'-\"o. These people are occupied 

principaU} in the collecting of sea cucumbers, turtle-, and pearl-, and 
i« detaije concerning these aesta ma\ be found in the article on zoology. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 79 

the gathering of birds' nests in the islands of Paragua and Culion, 
where they are ordinarily found in the greatest abundance; they also 
raise hogs and various kinds of fowls. 

CAMPO 

is situated 6^ miles northwest of the island of Cuyo, and is small, clean, 
and precipitous, and formed of a central mountain. Near by, to the 
northeast of Cuyo, are the little islands of Siparay Tuebuque, and the 
isles of Tayanayan and Cocoro, these two being almost united. 

AGUTAYA. 

This island is situated almost in the center of the group, and is 3 
miles long from north to south; it is bold and precipitous on all sides 
except the southwest, and is surrounded by various small islands, such 
as Dit on the north-northwest, Maracanao on the northeast, Mataza- 
bis to the east-southeast, Guinlabo, Paya, Patunga, Pamitinan, and 
Lubic on the southwest, Oco, Imaranan, and Sean on the west. The 
town of Agutaya has a population of 2,061 inhabitants. 

LANGUAGES. 

Calamian, Vicol, and Visaya are spoken, the latter especially on the 
Cuyos Islands, which are nearest to Panay. After Calamian and Tag- 
banua, it is the language most generally spoken in the Calamianes. 
In the island of Agutaya a special dialect called Agutiano is spoken. 
Coyuno is spoken in the islands nearest to Paragua. 

PRODUCTS. 

These have already been indicated in speaking of the towns. In 
general, it may be said that the inhabitants of these islands are occu- 
pied more in fishing and hunting than in agriculture. They cultivate 
the land only for the production of articles of food of prime necessity 
which are used in the islands themselves. The} T export bamboo, wax, 
and, during the past few years, chocolate, the cultivation of which is 
increasing, and some cattle. The industries are limited to the manu- 
facture of wine* and cloth, especially that made from hemp. In some 
of the islands gold is found. 



CHAPTER VII. 

VISAYAS (A). 

ISLANDS OF ROMBLON AND PANAY. 

[Maps Nos. 16 and 20 of the Atlas of the Philippines.] 

INTRODUCTION. 

The Visayan Islands, formerly called Islas de Pintados (islands of 
the painted men), occupy the central part of the archipelago, between 
Luzon on the north, Mindoro on the south, the Pacific on the east, and 
Paragua on the west. They are situated between 9° 2' and 1 2° 39' 
north latitude, and between 121° 48' and 125° 50' west longitude from 
Greenwich. 

The total area of the Visayas is 57,714 square kilometers, and the 
number of inhabitants 2,202,565. The group may be divided into 
three parts, which will be treated of in three chapters, as follows: 
First, Ron i hi on and Panay; second, Negros, Cebu, and Bohol: third. 
Samar and Leyte. 

Something will be said of the islands adjacent to the principal 
islands as these are spoken of. 

ROMBLON GROUP. 
BOUNDAEIES AM) GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

The Romblon group includes the islands of Romblon, Bantan, 
Maestre de Campo, Sibuyan, Simara, Tablas, and the small adjoin- 
ing islands. On the north are Marinduque, Luzon, and Burias; on 

the south Panay, on tiie east Masbate, and on the west Mindoro. 
They are situated between the parallels of 12° 3' and 13° 14' north 
latitude, and L21 34:' and L22 .~>0' east longitude from Greenwich. 



They have an area of L,278 square kilometers, and a population of 
34,828, the greater pari of whom are Visayans. In the island o\' 

Tablas there are some pagans of the Negrito race, and in the same 

island and in Romblon some Manguianes. 

ISLANDS \M> lew \^. 

The most northern group is formed of the islands o\' Maestre de 

( lampo, Banton, Bantoncillo, and Simara, which form, with the coasts 
of Mindoro on the west, Marinduque pn the north, and Tablas on the 
south, \ erv deep and clear channels. These are well-known and much 
frequented bj Philippine boats, which pass through the Strait o\' [sla 
Verde on their waj from Manila to Qoilo, Negros, Cebu, and the 
southern pan of the archipelago. 
BQ 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 81 

MAESTRE DE CAMPO. 

This island is situated 11 miles southeast of the nearest land; the 
elevated hill formed by Mount Dumali in Mindoro. It is circular in 
form, 3£ miles in diameter and very mountainous and high. The prin- 
cipal anchorages are Concepcion and Sibali on the southern coast of 
the island. 

DOS HERMANAS 

are two small, level islands, 42 meters in height and very close 
together, situated 5 miles northeast one-quarter east of Maestre de 
Campo; the western one is called Car lota. 

BANTON. 

This island is situated 18 miles east of Maestre de Campo and 7 miles 
to the southeast of the island called Isabel, to the east of Dos Hermanas. 
It is about 4 miles from north to south, and the same from east to west; 
it is high and precipitous, except on the southern side, where there is 
a small rocky reef. On the eastern coast there is a small bay, where 
the town of Banton is situated. The soil of the entire island is quite 
sterile. The town has a population of 4,063. A small quantity of 
tobacco, of poor quality, is produced here. There is a mine of gyp- 
sum of excellent quality and another of almager of very poor quality. 

BANTONCILLO, 

a little island situated to the southwest of Banton, is very narrow and 
about three-quarters of a mile long, from north to south. 



This island is situated approximately in the middle of the channel 
between Banton and the north of Tablas. There is one small town 
called Corcuera, which has a population of 2,064. 



This long, narrow island, extending from north to south, between 
the little group of Banton and Bantoncillo on the north, and the north- 
western extremity of the island of Panay on the south, separates the 
channel southeast of Mindoro called Tablazo from that of Capiz, 
which will be spoken of later. It is 35 miles long, from north to south, 
and about 10 miles wide in its broadest part. The country is moun- 
tainous, in the extreme north there being a mountain called Cabeza 
de Tablas, 733 meters high, which dominates the entire island. On 
the southwestern coast there is a town and port of Looc, the best in 
the island. The town has a population of 6,463. There are three 
other towns on the island, as follows: Odiongan, on the eastern coast, 
with a population of 5,651; Badajoz, with 9,461, and Salado, with 
2,274. 

CARABAO. 

This island divides the strait between Panay and Tablas. It is quite 
mountainous. 

ROMBLON. 

This island is situated 6 miles to the east of the northeastern part of 
Tablas; it is 8£ miles long, from north to south, and 4£ miles in its 
greatest breadth. It is very rich in quartz, marble, and slate. The 
port of Romblon, in the upper part of the western coast of the island, 



82 REPOBT OP THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

although small, is oneof the best in the Visayas. In front of the port 
is the small island of Lubung. On point Sobang there is a light- 
house, as a guide to the entrance of the harbor. At the foot of a high 
mountain, just at the head of the bay, is the principal town of the 
island. Romblon, which has a population of 7,263. 



This island is situated to the north of Lubung, TA cables length from 
the northwest coast of Romblon. 

COBRA DOR. 

This island is situated a mile north northwest of Alad. 

BEBUYAN. 

This island is quite mountainous, and almost in the center there 
arises from among others the peak called "Sibuyan," which dominates 
the entire island. The island is 17 miles long, from northwest to 
southeast, and 9i miles broad, from northeast to southwest. There 
are three principal rivers. The Mabalog rises on the highest peak of 
the island on the southwestern side and falls in beautiful cascades into 
an extensive valley, which, along- with several smaller streams, it 
waters, finally discharging on an extensive sand beach but a short dis- 
tance to the east of Point Mabalog, from which it takes its name. 
The Cambulayan has its source on the western side of Sibuyan, winds 
its way around several mountains Avhich it encounters in its course, 
and. increasing its volume from several small rivers, empties to the 
east of the island a short distance to tin 1 south of Point Cambulayan. 
The Nailog has its source on the heights of one of the highest peaks 
of the northwest. After receiving the waters of several small rivers, 
it flows through the most extensive valley of the island and empties 
on the north over a sandy beach, about the center o\' a bay situated 
between points Balaring and Pagdulog. 

There are. besides, many smaller rivers or creeks, all containing as 
tine drinking water as is found in the archipelago. The island is 
extremely fertile, and has beautiful Lowlands suitable for the cultiva- 
tion of different articles, but its inhabitants live in t ho greatest misery 
and plant only such things as are absolutely necessary for their exist- 
ence, being engaged in the collection of sea cucumbers and tortoise 
shell, and also in the collection of gold from the placer mines of the 
Nailog River. The Manguianes, who live in the mountains, are quite 
pacific, but not at all addicted to work and so dirty that die most of 
them go naked and are covered with all kinds of repugnant cutaneous 
eruptions. The island has three towns belonging to the district of 
Romblon ( iapdiocan, on the eastern coast, with a population o\' "..T 1 .*?: 
Magallanes, on the northern coast, with 1,744, and A/agra. with 3,798. 
There are also several villages scattered along the coast In the 
interior there are tribes of Manguianes who have never been subju- 
gated, rhe sea Bpace between Romblon, Sibuyan and its adjacent 
islands, and Panaj is called by seafaring men theTablazode Qapiz. 



i w..i u;ns 



Visayo i- generall} spoken, except by the Manguianes. who use 
their <»w n language, 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 83 



PRODUCTS. 



In the towns of this group various products are produced sufficient 
to satisfy the wants of the inhabitants. Some tobacco of rather infe- 
rior quality is raised. During the last few years the exportation of 
copra from Romblon has assumed respectable proportions. A certain 
amount }f gum mastic is exported from Romblon and Sibuyan. The 
marble quarries of Romblon are also worked to some extent. 

THE ISLAND OF PANAY AND ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

The island of Panay, belonging to the Visayan group, is situated 
between parallels of latitude 11° 55' and 10° 24' north, and longitude 
121° 49' and 123° 9' east from Greenwich. To the north extends the 
Tablazo de Capiz, or little inland sea, included between the islands of 
Tablas, Romblon, Sibuyan, and Masbate. As has been said, on the 
east the Straits of Concepcion and Iloilo separate it from the numerous 
adjacent islands and the island of Negros, and on the south and west 
extends the important inland sea known as the Sea of Jolo or of Min- 
doro, which separates it from Negros, Paragua, the Cagayanes group, 
and the Cuyos and Calamianes groups. Ail of the islands and isles 
adjacent, and some of those farther away, belong to the civil govern- 
ment of the districts into which this island is divided. It may be said, 
in a general wslj, that the shape of the island is triangular, the three 
sides extending from west-northwest to east-southeast, from northeast 
to southwest, and from northwest to south-southwest. In general the 
island is mountainous, although there are many extensive and very 
fertile valleys. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The total area, including the adjacent islands, is 13,583 square kilo- 
meters; the population, 756,786, the most of whom are Visayans. 
There are several thousand pagans, called Mundos, dwelling in the 
mountains, and also some Negritos in some of the mountain chains. 

CIVIL DIVISION OP THE ISLAND INTO PROVINCES OR DISTRICTS. 

The mountain ranges form natural divisions for the provinces or 
districts of the island. These are Antique, Capiz, Iloilo, and the 
comandancia, or district of Concepcion. 

PRODUCTS. 

The fertility of the soil of Panay is well known. Among the various 
woods may be mentioned molave, ebony, and sibucao, of which large 
quantities are annually exported to China. So, too, in the mountain- 
ous parts of Iloilo, in the comandancia of Concepcion and in Gui- 
maras, fine woods are found in large quantities, but the province most 
celebrated for the richness of its forest products is Capiz, where as 
many as 87 varieties of excellent building woods are known. From 
the forests large quantities of honey, wax, and pitch are gathered. 
The mineral resources of this island are of little importance. Quick- 
silver is believed to exist; so, too, with copper, although its situation is 
unknown. It is probable that beds of iron ore exist in some of the 
mountains, and there are many places in which gold is or may be 
worked, such as the vicinity of Dumarao, Binatusan and Lausan, etc. 
There are indications of coal or lignite in Busuanga, Balate, Valder- 



g i REPORT OF THE I'll I LI I'l'l N K COMMISSION. 

nim:l ;1I1( | ther points. Several quarries are worked, such as those 
of Morobozo, Gutujan, Tim. man. and I-an. rhere are also hne mar- 
bles found, and a beautiful tonalite, which may be substituted. Lime 
of most excellent quality is abundant in the district oi lloilo, where 
various quarries of excellent quality and hardness are found, particu- 
larly i n febaras and in Mount, Tinicoan. Cotton, com. chocolate, pep- 
per" coffee, tobacco, sugarcane and rice arc cultivated with much suc- 
cess'' the last two of excellent quality and in large quantities. On its 
crazing Lands, which cover a great part of its area, much live stock is 
raisedfin the district of Capiz alone there being more than 50,000 
bead, the greater part of them carabaos. The horses _ot lloilo are 
greatly prized. Wild animals are very abundant, especially butialo 
deer, wild hogs, etc. Crocodiles abound in the rivers, and fish and 
shells in the waters of the sea; tortoise shell is also found. . 

THE ISLANDS ADJACENT TO PANAY. 

The principal of these are: On the north coast, Borocay, the little 
islands of Mobav, and Tuat, Ocutaya, the little Zapatos, the North 
and South Gigantes or Sibuluac, Cabay and Sibuluac Lalaque. On 
the east coast, Maninigo, Nabunut, Balbagan, Tumumalayum, Gigan- 
tes, Binnluanganan, Calaguan, Sigocon, Canaz, Luginut, Bayas, 1 an- 
de-Azucar, Culebra, Tagil, Malangaban, Danao, Sombrero Bagalri, 
Fagubanhan, the little islands of Sal and Seite Pecados. Guimaras, 
Nalunga and Nadulao, and Unison. On the western coast. Mangium, 
Balbatan, Maralison Islands, and the reefs of Cagayanes, or the seas 
of Cagayan, Cagancillo, Calija, and Caville. 

We will speak briefly of some of the more important. 



PAN-DE-AZUCAR. 



This island is near the coast of Panay and is the largest of the five 
northern islands which are found at the north entrance of the channel 
to lloilo. It is about 5 miles long, and of the two notable peaks 
which are seen the highest has an elevation of 621 meters above sea 
level. There are various smaller islands in the vicinity. 



SIETE PECADOS. 



This LS a group of se\ en islands, or rather large rocks, situated in the 
middle of the channel from the [guana bank and a little before reaching 
the sheltered water formed by the northern point of Guimaras and the 
coast of Panay. The highest ^\' these Is about s meters above the 

Water, and all of them are precipitous 



ouiM \i; vs. 



This island is situated at the southern entrance of the strait which 
separates Panaj and Negros; it is very Hat in front iA' the coast of 
lloilo. with which it forms the channel of this name. The soil is fertile, 
;i n,l produces rice, hemp, cotton, coin, and tobacco in small quantities. 
The most important towns are Buenavista, nn i 1 1 i i. :>>:'> inhabitants: 
iba, with 6,297, besides a large number of small villages. The 
inhabitants of tnis island are occupied only in agriculture. Thej also 
engage in hunting and ashing, and in the manufacture o( the ordinary 
and hner fabrics. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 85 

Toward the southeast of Guimaras are the little islands of Nadulao, 
Lalunga, Inampulugan, Nanoy Guinanon, and Panabulon, and other 
smaller islands of little importance. 

THE DISTRICT OR PROVINCE OF ANTIQUE 
BOUNDARIES. 

The district or province of Antique is bounded on the north by the 
district of Capiz, on the east by that of Iloilo, and on the south and 
west by the sea. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The total area of this district is 472 square kilometers, 27 of these 
belonging to the adjacent islands. The number of registered inhabit- 
ants is 115,434. 

LANGUAGE. 

A somewhat modified form of Visayan is spoken. 

NUMBER OF TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND PARISHES. 

There are 19 towns having a population of over 10,000, among which 
are Sibolam, Culasi, and Pandan. Antique itself has 10,929; San Jose 
de Buena vista, the capital, has a population of 6,000; it is situated to 
the south of Point Dalipe, on level ground, and presents a beautiful 
appearance, as is indicated by its name. Besides the capital town are 
the following: Anmuy, with a population of 5,000; Antique, 10,929; 
Barbaza, 6,334; Bugason, 12,097; Cagancillo, 2,316; Culasi, 10,382; 
Dao, 7,635, Egana and Guisijan, 3,086; Malupa, 2,534; Pandan, 8,837; 
Patnongon and San Remigio, 2,976; San Pedro, 6,190; Sebaste and 
Sibolam, 13,493; Tibiao, Valderrama, and Caritan. Among these 
Sibolam, with a population of 15,000, Pulasi, Pandan, and Antique, 
the former capital, figure as the most important. The number of 
villages is 53 and of hamlets 5. There are, besides, many hamlets of 
conquered pagans. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRIES, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

Within a few years this region has begun to develop agriculturally, 
and now produces considerable quantities of rice and sugar cane and 
lesser quantities of subacao, coffee, chocolate, and tobacco of excellent 
quality. In addition to agriculture, grazing is carried on, likewise 
the manufacture of sugar. Industries are confined to the manufacture 
of fabrics from pineapple fiber, jusi, and sinamay, which gives employ- 
ment to some 12,000 women in about 7,000 shops. There is but little 
commerce in the interior. The export trade is carried on by means of 
small boats, which carry to Iloilo and Manila sugar, hemp, rice, and 
manufactured goods in large quantities, and sibacao, hides, etc., in 
smaller quantities. The importation in 1870 was 87,478 piculs, and 
the exportation 197,809. The forests contain a great variety of excel- 
lent building and cabinet woods, such as molave, ipil, banaba, durigon, 
alintatao, narra, etc. ; an abundance of pitch, resin gum, mastic wax, 
and honey is also obtained in the forests. In the vicinity of the town 
of Antique there are also found immense beds of marble of various 



86 BEPOBT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

color- and structure, more or Jess tine, but these have not been 
worked. In the island of Nagas seashells are found in abundance. 
During the dry season the roads can be traversed without difficulty, 
hut during the wet season they become impassable for carriages. 
There are two cart roads which communicate with the adjacent dis- 
tricts; on< 1 starts from the town of San Jose, passing through all of 
fche towns to the north and unites with the road in the district of 
Capiz, at Navas. The other, starting from San Jose, follows along 
through Antique and joins with a road in the province of Iloilo. at the 
town of San Joakin. These roads are interrupted by the mountains 
to the north and south, being reduced to paths more or less inacces- 
sible, according to the time of the year. 

PROVINCE OR DISTRICT OF CAPIZ. 

BOUNDARIES AND AREA. 

This district is in the northern part of Panay, and is bounded on 
the north and east from Point Bulacali to Point Naso by the sea. on 
the southeast by the mountain chain which separates it from Iloilo. 
and on the southwest by the mountain which separates it from the dis- 
trict of Antique. Included in this province are the islands of Carabes 
and Busacay and the smaller islands of Tabon, Malaya. Marava, 
Mahabangpulo, Masuleg, Fued, Batongbagni, Matalinga, Olutaya. 
Magotalipan, Negtig, Nasanda, Manapao, Banagay, and some others. 

The area of the province is 4,547 square kilometers, and of the 
islands 55 square kilometers. 

GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

The country for the most part is flat and low, and exposed to 
frequent floods, except in the towns of Banga, Buruanga, Jamindang, 
and Sapian, which are situated in the mountains. All of the others 
occupy extensive lowlands, which are exceedingly fertile because of 
the large cumber of rivers and creeks which water them. 

NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 

The population is about 224.000, although it is not easy to estimate 
this exactly on account of the large number of people scattered 
throughout the mountains of Balate, Ibajay. Libaeao. Madalag. and 
Tapas, who acknowledge no other authority than that of their head 

men. 

town-. \ ill. \<;i>, \M> P LBIBHB8. 

The capital. Oapiz, situated on the bank of the river Panay. has a 

population of 22,000. Its appearance is very beautiful, the level 

[and being traversed by broad highways, wrhicn offer communication 

with Iloilo and Antique. For its defense it has a small fort, contain* 

ing a garrison. It is a telegraph station. Other towns are Balete, 

Banga, Bitan, Buruanga, Cauvo, Cuartero, Dao, Dumalag, Dumaras, 

Iltajay. [yisan, Jimeno, Jamindang, Jagnaya, Lezo, Libaeao. Loctu- 

<j:in. Ma-Ayon, Macato, Madalag, Malinao, Mambusao, Navas, Numan- 

cia, Panav, L6.672; Pilar, L4,448; Pontevedra, Ll,800; Panitan, Sapian, 

Sigma, Tantralan, and Tana/. 
~ ■ i 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 87 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

The forest products are very abundant, there being not less than 87 
species of building woods. They are, however, very scarce near the 
capital and the coast towns. Pitch and resins of various kinds are 
obtained. Agriculture has advanced greatly during the last few years, 
among the products being rice, sugar, tobacco, hemp, indigo, choco- 
late, and corn. The manufacture of alcohol is of special importance, 
and includes some very large distilleries, the total annual product being 
more than 500,000 liters. Among other industries may be mentioned the 
manufacture of sugar sacks, hats of palm leaf, and baskets, and fabrics 
of silk, cotton, and hemp. These industries are common throughout 
the province. Commerce is not very nourishing. Trade is carried on 
at the weekly fairs, held on indicated days in all towns, the principal 
articles of trade being rice, hemp, pineapple fiber cloth, and dry fish. 
The export trade is carried on in small coasting vessels. Live stock 
figures among the wealth of the district, there being 45,624 head, 
having an approximate value of $324,504. The highways are in good 
condition during the dry season, but are almost impassable for car- 
riages during the wet season. In certain parts of the district there are 
mines of gold and other metals. 

THE DISTRICT OF ILOILO. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

This district includes all of the southeastern coast of the island of 
Panay, from Point Bula Cate, in latitude 11° 34' north on the northeast, 
to Point Nasog, in latitude 10° 24' north on the south. It has a coast 
line of 140 miles. It is bounded north by the district of Capiz, on the 
east by the strait and island of Guimaras, on the west by the province 
of Antique, and on the south by the Mindoro Sea. The following 
islands pertain to the district of Iloilo: Guimaras and Inampulugan 
and the little islands of Nadules, Salinga, Nanay, Nalibas, Nagarao, 
Susan, Guianon, Panabulon, Lugaran, Tandog, Babalod, Tunginban, 
and the group of Siete Pecados, and others more insignificant still. 

The general aspect of the district is that of a well cultivated and 
planted park, dotted with well-built and commodious houses, which 
are shaded by beautiful fruit trees. The towns are almost all large, 
clean, and well built. In no other province or district are there so 
many beautiful churches; they are all of stone, their architecture being 
pleasing. The cemetery of Ianinay is especially notable. No other 
province is crossed by as many well-built roads and byways. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The area is 3,755 square kilometers, not counting the 806 square 
kilometers of the comandancia of Concepcion, which in reality belongs 
to this district. The area of the islands belonging to it is 598 square 
kilometers. After Manila this province is the most populous of the 
archipelago, having, according to the official census of 1887, 423,462 
inhabitants. In all of the towns, especially those of the coast, there 
are many European and Chinese half-castes, and in this province many 
Chinese are found. In the mountains separating the province from 
Capiz and Antique there are many families of Negritos of Aetas. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

These lead a miserable existence and are rapidly diminishing. More 
numerous and important are the tribes and families of natives living 
in the mountains. Thesearein reality, in race, language, and customs, 
Visayans, the most Of them being refugees from the towns. 

LANGU LGE. 

A- in other parts of the island, Visaya is spoken. 

TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND PARISHES. 

The capita] of the province is of the same name, Tloilo, and is situ- 
ated on the southeastern coast of Panay, on an excellent and well- 
protected port suitable for ships of 15-foot draft. The city is built 
on an irregular plan, its two principal streets following the course of 
the river. Its houses are excellent and of good construction, there 
being constant improvement in this direction. According to the Offi- 
cial Guide for 1887 it had a population of 11,884. It is, next to 
Manila, the most important commercial town in the Philippines, as 
well in exports as in imports. It has, like Manila, an ayuntamiento. 
established by decree, and banking houses. It has a city and Bub- 
urban police force. Among the important buildings may be mentioned 
the government house, the church, the office of the captain of the 
port, the convent, and the jail. The river Iloilo is an arm of the sea. 
which, after passing through the capital and the towns of Iloilo. Ari- 
valo, and Otorca, empties into the ocean. It allows of the entrance at 
all times of ships of good size and offers excellent protection against 
storms. Oil. vinegar, cocoa wine, lime, mats, and various articles of 
palm wood are manufactured. Jaro, formerly Santa Isabel, with a 
population of 13,070, is situated on flat land along the right bank of 
the large river of the same name. This river is navigable for boats of 
considerable size, and has a commodious port for such shipping. A 
stone bridge crosses it. This town, located about 1 miles from Iloilo. 
was founded in 1584 or 1585. It was made an episcopal see, separat- 
ing it from that of Cebu, by bull of Pius IX, 1865. It has a tine 
cathedral, episcopal palace, seminary, and some tine private houses. 
Like Iloilo. it has its ayuntamiento. 

Other towns of the district are: Alimadian. Anilao. Arivalo. Bara- 
tae Nueva. Baratae Yiejo. Banate, lUienavista. Cabatuan, with 20,035 
inhabitants; Calinog, Cordoba, Dingke, with 12,098 Duenas; Diman- 

?es, with L5,178; Guimbal, [gbaras, with 11,359; Janinay, with 26,460; 
/a Tax. Lambunao, Leganes, Leon, with 14,714: Lucena, Maasin, 
Mandurriao Miagao, Mina. Molo, Nagaba, Oton, with L3,883; Passi, 
with L4,688; Pavia, with 6,328; Pototan, with 15,939; San Enrique, 
San Miguel, San Joaquin, with 1.3,649; Santa Barbara, with l l .».7l7: 
Tigbanan, with L6,850; Tubungan, Zarraga, and Novales. 

PRODI < PB \M> [NDDB1 EUES. 

The principal product- of this province are sugarcane, wheat, corn, 



principal products ot tins province arc sugar cane, wheat, corn. 

coffee, chocolate, tobacco, hemp, and other agricultural products. 

are 37,552 farm bands. Mine- of gold and other metals and 



There 

quarries of fine stone arc found in the province. The inhabitants 
make excellent fabrics i^\' pineapple fiber, jusi, sinamay, and cotton. 
A- the province bas abundant pasture land, cattle, carabaos, sheep, 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 89 

and horses of fine grade are raised in all the towns. There is a total 
of 153,439 head of live stock, the greater part being cattle. The port 
of Iloilo, the second in the archipelago in commercial activity, both 
foreign and domestic, was thrown open to commerce in 1855. There 
are 30,000 looms in the province. 

PROVINCE OR DISTRICT OF CONCEPCION. 
AREA AND BOUNDARIES. 

This comandancia and dependency of the district of Iloilo is situated 
in the extreme northeast of Panay. 

The following islands are dependencies of this district: Binnbuangan, 
Calagnan, Sicogon, Pan de Azucar, Tago, Bulibadiangan, and Taguban- 
han, and the little islands of Calabazas, Baybang, Nasichuan Point 
Brin, Salog, Binassan, Ananayan, Bagabu, Sombrero, Dunao, Manga- 
ban, Builag, Bitad, Naburat, Magoise, Culebra, Panganoncolangan, 
Bay as Tumugum, Canaz, Luginut, Adialayo, Tabugun Pulupinta 
Talunanaim, Balbagan, Nabunut, Manigonigo, Gigante Norte or 
Sibulnacbabay, Gigante Sur or Sibuluaclalaqui, Uaidajon, Bantiqui, 
Cabayao, Antonio, and others still smaller. 

NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 

The number of inhabitants, according to the Official Guide of the 
Philippines for 1897, is 38,982. 

TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND PARISHES. 

Concepcion, the capital, located on an excellent anchorage, has a 
population of more than 4,000. Ajui, with the village of Bolasi, has 
a population of 6,228. Other towns are Balasan, Carlos, Limery, S. 
Dionisio, Sara, with 11,746; Batad, and Estancia, with 12,564. 

PRODUCTS AND INDUSTRY. 

The products are those common to all of Panay. The principal 
industry is the manufacture of sugar. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

VISA Y AS (B). 

[Maps Nob. 21, 22, and J3 of the Atlas of the Philippines.] 

ISLAND OF NEGROS. 

BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITION OF THE ISLAND. 

The island of Negros, belonging to the Visayan group, is situated 
between Panay on the west and Cebu on the east. It is in shape elon- 
gated from north to south, presenting an extensive, high and rounded 
appearance on the southwestern part, where the mountain chain of 
Sojatas. dominated by the highest of its peaks, is found. Its bound- 
aries arc on the north the Visayan Sea, on the south the sea which 
separates it from Mindoro, on the east the channel separating it from 
Cebu, and on the west the Jolo Sea. 

GENERAL APPEARANCE. 

The spurs from the central dividing mountain chain of the island 
have beautiful, large valleys, which are inhabited only on the western 
Bide from Sajotasto Silay, on the north and northeast, where extensive 
plains cut by rivers of good size are found. Although the land is 
somewhat rugged, it is very fertile in the cultivated part, because of 
the numerous rivers which water it. The central part of the island is 
unexplored. The coast is fairly regular and on the south and east 
rather bold, presenting tew bays and no ports. 

u;ka and inhabitants. 

The island i> 220 kilometers in length by ST in breadth at Sajotas, 
and has an area of 9,341 square kilometers. The population is 240,000. 
Some of them are Visayans and others Panayanos. 

The island has recently been divided into two provinces, Western 
and Eastern Negros. 

l.woi LGE8. 

The language commonly used is Visaya, the pagans and mountain 
people using ranayano. 

products. 

Theisland produces in abundance the best quality of chocolate in 
the Visayas, also wax. rice, wheat, corn, sugar cane, coffee, tobacco, 
cotton, hemp, bago, and sibucao. etc. Tattle, horses, hogs, ami cara- 
baos air found in abundance. The forests produce an abundance of 
tine building woods, among these being teak. Pish, tortoise shell, sea 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 91 

cucumbers, gulaman, sea shells, lagan, etc., are found in abundance 
along the shores, but the inhabitants, little given to work, do not pay 
much attention to this industry. Along the western coast, near the 
mountains of Uling and Alpaco, good coal mines have recently been 
found. The industries are limited to the weaving of hemp and palm. 

FIRST DISTRICT — WESTERN NEGROS. 

BOUNDARIES, ETC. 

This district is bounded on the north by the islands of Sibuyan and 
Romblon, on the east by the province of Eastern Negros, on the south 
by Mindanao, and on the west by the island of Panay, occupying, 
therefore, as is indicated by its name, the western part of the island 
from the east to the watershed of the central mountain range. 

GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY. 

This province is very fertile, and, thanks to constant work and the 
improvements introduced by the many Europeans who have estab- 
lished themselves there, it can be placed in the front rank of all the 
provinces of the archipelago. Hydraulic and steam machinery is 
abundant, as is apparatus for the working and cultivation of the soil 
and the extraction of sugar. A broad carriage road uniting the vari- 
ous towns contributes to the development of commerce. 

AREA. 

The area is 5,800 square kilometers. 

INHABITANTS. 

There is a population of 231,512. 

TOWNS. 

Bacolod, situated on uneven ground near the seacoast, has a popula- 
tion of 11,621:, and is the capital. It has some fine public and private 
buildings, among them being the church and convent, the government 
house, the town hall, and others. Other towns are Arguelles, Bajo, with 
13,390; Binalbagan, Cabangcalan, Cadiz Nueva, Calatrava, Canayan, 
Dancalan, Escalante Granada, Guinigaran, 13,620; Ginjungan, Guimba- 
laon, 11,670; Hog, Isabela, 12,310; Isin, Jinamalayan, La Carlota, 
12,117; Manapla, Minuluan, 12,132; Murcia, Pontevedra, 10 ; 901; San 
Enrique, Sara via, Silay, 13,780; Suay, Suinag, and Yalladolid. 

SECOND DISTRICT EASTERN NEGROS. 

BOUNDARIES. 

This district is bounded on the north and west b}^ Western Negros, 
on the east by the islands of Cebu and Bohol, and on the south by 
Mindanao. 



It has an area of 3,541 square kilometers. 
p c— vol 3—01 11 



92 BEPOBT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

INHAI5ITAM-. 

According to the last census the population was 140.489. This 
district is not bo fertile as the previous one, but, nevertheless, native 
labor, stimulated by Europeans, produces crops of sugar cane, hemp, 
rice chocolate, coffee, and cotton. The industries consist of the man- 
ufacture of sugar and of the sacks in which the sugar is packed. The 
manufacture of cotton pillows is notable, as they are carried in large 
numbers to all parts by steamers. 

TOWNS, ETC. 

Dumaguete is situated on level ground, on the southeastern coast 
of the island, near the mouth of the river of the same name. It is 
the capital town and has a population of 14,352. Other towns are 
Ainblan, Ayungan, Bacong, with 10,129; Bais, Bayanan, Canoan, 
Dauin, Guijuhugan, Jimalalud, Lacy, Manjuyed, Maria, Nueva Valen- 
cia. San Juan, Siaton, Sibulan, Siguijoc, Tangay, 11,743; Tayason, 
Tolon, and Zamboanguita. 

ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

There is almost no island of importance near Negros. 3acabac is a 
little island, half a mile long, situated 2£ miles to the northeast of Point 
Sagay, and divides Tanon Strait into two channels. In Tanon Strait. 
near the eastern coast of Negros, is the little island and anchorage of 
Refugio, a mile from the coast in front of Tabon. It is high in the 
northern part and is 1£ miles long from north to south and 1 mile 
wide from east to west. The Bais Islands are but little islands in the 
bay of the same name. Apo Island is situated 3£ miles south, 77 
east of Point Zamboanguita. On the southeast there are two little 
islands, Dajugan and Agutian. 

ISLAND OF CEBU. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

This island forms part of the Visayan Group and is situated exactly 
in the center of it, It is included between the parallels of 9 25' 46" 
and II L6' 37" north latitude. To the north is the island of Mashatc, 
i<> the south Siquijor, to the east Leyte, Camotes, Maston, and Bohol, 
and to the west Batayan and Negros. The eastern coast is washed by 
the Sea of Cebu and the western hy the Strait of Tanon. which sepa- 
rates it from NegTOS. Its outlines are Irregular, the island being 
elongated and narrow in the direction of north-nortbea>t to south- 

BoutEwest 

\i;i:a. 

it i- 216 kilometers in length and 36 in width at [to broadest part. 
It- area is 6,582 square kilometers, including the adjacent islands. 

imi \i-.it\\t>. 

Recording t<> the data published in the Bulletin de Cebu, the popu- 
lation at the beginning of L888 was 518,032, distributed among 52 
towns. The population for each square mile, therefore, reaches the 
respectable figure of L28. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 93 



The capital, Cebu, is situated on the eastern coast of the island; the 
climate is hot, but even and healthful. It has a magnificent port 
formed by the two islands of Mactan and Opon, which protect it from 
all winds. The country in the vicinity is level, but stony and sandy; 
the town contains about 2,000 buildings, and has a population of 
14,300; the streets are laid out on a regular plan; are wide and free 
from stones. The government house is a fairly good building; the 
episcopal palace, although small, is likewise worthy of mention on 
account of its interior decorations. The cathedral, finished toward 
the end of the last century, is a magnificent temple; in it is preserved 
the cross which, according to tradition, was planted by Magellan in 
Cebu on taking possession of the island. The Augustin Church is 
magnificent, while the Recolleto Convent and the Seminary of San 
Carlos, formerly the Jesuit College, are worthy of mention. The city 
is cut by a small river of little importance, but well supplied with 
water. In front of the city, to the east, is the little island of Mactan, 
where the illustrious Magellan, a victim of his valor, terminated his 
days. Just outside of the town are located a fine cemetery; a large 
leper hospital and an artillery fort, with a garrison of troops (see 
plate 27). The towns included in this district are Alcantara, Alcoy, 
Alegria, Aloguinsan, Argao, with 34,252; Asturias, Badian, Barili, 
Balangbang, Banta}^an, Bago, Boljoon, Borbon, Carcar, 34,096; Car- 
men, Catmon, Compestela, Consolarion, Cordoba, Daan, Bantayan, 
Dalaguese, 20,257; Danao, Dumanjug, El Pardo, 10,007; Gintalin, 
Liloan, Madrilejos, Malaboyoc, Mandane, Medellin, Moalboal, Ming- 
lanilla, 10,767; Naga, 16,519; Nueva Caceres, Oslob, Pilar, Pinamun- 

fajan, Poro, Ronda, Samboan, Santander, San Fernando, 18,811; 
anta Fe, San Francisco, San Nicolas, Sogod, San Renugio, Sibongan, 
24,934; Tagobon, Tudela, Talamban, Talisay, 19,229; Toledo, and 
Tuburan. 

PRODUCTS, ETC. 

The forests in the mountains produce excellent building woods. 
Birds, reptiles, deer, and wild hogs abound in them. The principal 
products are rice, excellent chocolate, corn, a fair grade of sugar, 
cotton, vegetables, and fruits, but the scarcity of rains and of land 
suitable for cultivation prevents the development of agriculture to 
the same degree as in other districts. In the waters along the coast 
are found the celebrated regadera de Cebu (euplectella, glas sponge, 
or Venus flower basket), the only one of its genus, and the rare and 
much sought shell gloria maris. Coal beds were discovered here in 
1827, before they were found in any other part of the archipelago. 
The principal deposits are those of Alpaco, Tiling, Guylaguyla, Noga, 
Dapano, and Campostela. The numerous experiments made with this 
coal render it certain that, although it is inferior to English coal, it is 
quite suitable for the use of steamboats and industries, it being con- 
sidered superior to that from Australia. Gold and silver-bearing lead 
ores are found in the central part of the island at Panapag, Consalacion, 
Acsubing, and Budtam. There is also some auriferous soil which still 
shows traces of ancient washings. 

The industries of Cebu are limited to the manufacture of sugar, of 
cocoanut wine, salt, pottery, fabrics of silk, and sinamay hemp, and 



( .)4 BEPOBT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

cotton and sugar sacks. The cake and cheese of Cebu are also well 
known. Cebu carries on important domestic commerce with Manila, 
Camaguin, Bohol, Negros, Surigao, and Cagayan de Misamis. The 
mosl important ports arc Bago, Carmen, Danao, Cebu, Carcar, and 
A.rgao, on the east, and Bantayan, Tuburan Balangbang, and Barila, on 
the west. Along the eastern coast there is a highway that unites 21 
low ns with the capital, and on the west an excellent road uniting the 
various towns. 

THE ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

On the east coast is the little island of Capitancillo, situated 2J miles to 
1 lie cast of Point Saac; it is circular in form and has some trees grow- 
ing on it. The little island of Calangaman is situated 12 miles cast 
northeast of Point Nailon and almost west northwest of the entrance 
of Port Palompon, in the island of Leyte, and has a fixed white light 
situated on Point Bagacay. 

MACTAN. 

This island, famous in history, is situated in front of the city of 
Cebu; it is very flat and almost entirely covered with mangrove 
swamps, which are flooded during high tide, so that but little land is 
above water. It is covered with cocoanut groves. On this island is 
the town of Opon, with a population of 12,745. The inhabitants are 
engaged in fisheries or in the manufacture of salt. 

OLANGO 

Is a small island east of Mactan of little importance. 

SUMILON. 

This island is situated 3 miles to the east northeast of Point Tanon, 
and about 1 1 miles from the mainland; it is about two-thirds of a mile 
in length and about 54 meters high. It is clean and rugged, having 
sandy beaches and rocky bluffs along the coast. 

THE WEST (OAST. 

BcmtWJwn. — This island is situated west of the northern point of 
Cebu and more than 17 miles to the nort Invest of the northeastern point 
of Negros; it is rather low, the highest part being about the middle of 
the eastern coast; it is hi.l miles long from north northwest to south 
southeast, and about I miles broad. The nine islands which compose 
the group about Bantayan are surrounded by shoals, which are dry at 

h'W ti<!c and permit :i passage on foot from one to tin 4 other. The 

Qilantagnan islands are two in number, the largest o( which is situated 
-■'■ miles !<• the north of Point Ogton, and the smaller between this and 
the coast. The town of Bantayan is the most important on the island 
and i> situated «»n the southwestern coast on a little tongue of sandy 
land: including t he inhabitants of the villages of Ogton and Lanis, it 
bas a population of L4,400, allof whom are engaged in the collection 
of pearls, mother of pearl, tortoise shell, sea cucumbers, gumalon, and 
lagan. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 95 

The Doong Islands. —These islands extend for 10 miles to the south- 
west from Point Pasil de Bantayan in the direction of Point Sagal, on 
the island of Negros. They are of little importance. 

ISLANDS ON THE NORTH. 



Guiantacan. — This island is situated between Lanis, the northern 
extremity of the island of Bantayan, and Point Candaya. It is covered 
with trees, and is low, narrow, and long, being 6£ miles from north to 
south. 

Tibinil. — This island is situated a mile in front of Point Canit. It is 
of medium height and about 2 miles in length from north to south. 

Malapascua. — This island is called by the natives "Lugon." It is 
situated 3 miles to the northeast of Point Bulalaqui. Sea cucumbers 
and tortoise shells are abundant along the coast. The shores are covered 
with juniper trees, known in this country by the name of "agojos." 

ISLAND OF BOHOL. 
BOUNDARIES. 

This island belongs to the Visayan group, and is situated between 
Cebu on the west and Leyte on the northeast. 

GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY. 

The interior of the island is mountainous. The coasts are low and 
sandy, and as a general rule do not offer security to ships, although 
there are some good ports or bays, which will not, however, admit ships 
of much draft. The caves of the center of the island are worthy of 
mention. They are very large, with great subterranean galleries 
adorned with fanciful stalagmites and stalactites. 

United to the district of Boholare the islands of Siguijorand Danis. 

AREA. 

The area of the district is 2,380 square kilometers. 

INHABITANTS. 

The number of people in the district is 260,000. The Bohol people 
are quite active and initiative, being distinguished from the rest of the 
inhabitants of the archipelago. The skill of these people in the use 
of the lance is as famous as that of the Moros in the use of the campi- 
lan. The Moros have at all times held their valor in great respect. 

LANGUAGES. 

Visaya is spoken, although there are so many local modifications that 
it has been called Boholano or Bohol- Visayan. 

TOWNS. 

The capital, Tagbilaran, situated in the southwestern part in front of 
the island of Panglao, from which it is separated by a narrow strait, 
has a population of 9,471. The other towns are: Anda, Antequera, 



\U\ REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

with LI, 254; Badayon, Balilijan, Batuanan, Calapa, with 10,100; Can- 
dijay, Carmen, datigbian, Cosella, Corres, Danis, Duniao, Duero, 
Garcia, Hernandez, Getafe, Guinduhnan, Inabanga, with 1<>..~>43: Ipil, 
Jagna, with L2.700; Lila, Loay, Loboc, with L0,900; Loan, with 
L9,006; Maribo]oc, with lo.7<>o : Manglao, Sevilla, Sierra Bullones, 
lalibong, Tubigan, with 14.^7^; Qbay, Valencia, and Villar. 

PRODUCTS, INDUSTRIES, WD ways of COMMUNICATION. 

The soil is not yeryfertile, hut with good care produces considerable 

quantities of rice, coffee, tobacco, cotton, corn, millet, sweet potatoes, 
and other useful agricultural products. Building woods are quite 
abundant. There are indications of the existence of phosphate and 
iron, copper, and coal. Many mineral springs are found. The indus- 
tries are confined to the weaving of various fabrics, such as silk, pine- 
apple, and cotton, and the making of very serviceable blankets and nap- 
kin-, and of sinamav. Valuable mats are made from the rush called 
"ticay." They manufacture most delicious bread and biscuits. The 
exports are cocoanuN, sea cucumbers, wax. seashells, and pearls. The 
towns of the interior communicate with one another by means of paths. 
All of the others are united by cart roads suitable for carriages. 

ADJACENT ISLANDS. 
NOBTB COAST. 

In front of thiscoast are situated Pandan andCabulan, to the north- 
northwest of Point Lanis; Manacan, Bahanay, and Tambu, and a very 

large number of little islands, rocks, and reefs. 



Toward the northeast is the island of Lapinig or Minoc, separated 

from Bohol by a narrow channel. It is very low. covered with scrubby 
brush, and is about s miles lone-. Timibo is a little island situated 
southeast of its northern end. Lapinig Chico is almost united to the 
larger island on the southwest coast. 

EASTEBN COAST. 

The little islands <»f Tint'unan. Lumites. and Tabon are situated on 

this COaSt, 

- i i:k\ « <> kST. 

This coast is very much cleaner than the northern coast, having but 
<>ii«' island, Pamilacan, toward the southeast channel i^\' Tagbilaran. 

■STERN I 1ST, 

Panglao. This is a little island very close to the southwestern 
i of Bohol. from which it is separated by the channel o\' Tagbila- 
ran. During l<>\\ tide one can pass <>n fo.it from one island to the 
Other in the southeastern part i^' the channel. It contain- two towns, 

Panglao, on the eastern coast, with a population <>( 6,865, and Hani.-. 

on tEe western, w ith a population «.f 7,985, The coast i< unprotected. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 97 

and has no place where boats may anchor. To the southeast of 
Panglao rises the little island of Balicasag. The little islands of Sandi- 
gan, Cabilao, and Capalape are situated along the coast between 
Loon and Calape. 

Sequijor. — This island is the most important and populous of those 
around Bohol. It is situated southeast of the lower part of Negros 
and almost south of the strait which separates Cebu and Bohol, a dis- 
tance of 23 kilometers southeast of the southern entrance of Tafion 
Strait. The island is of but little altitude, very much broken, and is 
formed of the central mountain, from whose sides flow in all direc- 
tions the little streams which fertilize the island. Northeast of the 
central mountain is Mount Gudringan, whose sides on the north and 
east form Points Sandugan and Daquit. This island measures 27 kilo- 
meters from west-northwest to east-southeast and 20 kilometers from 
north to south. 

The products of the island are tobacco of excellent quality, rice, 
corn (scarcely sufficient for the wants of the people of the island), 
hemp, and chocolate, which is exchanged for wax and cotton. A con- 
siderable amount of rough hemp cloth is exported. Tortoise shell, 
sea cucumbers, and birds' nests of inferior quality are collected. 

The principal towns are Sequijor, on the best port of the island, 
with a population of 11,695; Canoan, with 10,695; Lasay, with 7,629; 
San Juan, with 6,171, and Maria, with 5,556. This is the most densely 
populated island of its size, it having 88 inhabitants to the square 
kilometer. 



CEEAPTEB IX. 

VISAVAS ,C). 

SAMAR, LEYTE, AND THE ADJACENT ISLAM'-. 

[MapsNos. 18, L9, andSOof theAtlasof the Philippines.] 

ISLAND OF SAMAR. 

B(H\li\i;ii> WD GENERAL CONDITION OF Till: COUNTRY. 

This large island, formerly called Ibabao, is the most eastern of the 
Visayas. It is situated southeastof the eastern part of the island oi 
Luzon, from which it is separated by the Strait of San Bernardino. 
Toward the southwest it is separated from the island of Leyte bv tin 
narrow Strait of San Juanico, which runs from north to south, lying 
between the southwestern coast of Samar and the northeastern coasted 
Leyte, and uniting that arm of the sea called the Western Sea of Samai 
on the north and the bay of San Pedro and San Pablo on the south. 
The Western Sea of Samar is the body of water lying between the 
western coast of the island of Samar. the northern coast of Leyte, and 
the eastern coast of Ma-hate. In it are situated the islands of Biliran, 
Paresan, Buad, Maripipi, Canahahuan, Libucan, Mesa, Sibugay Taga- 
pula, and others of lesser importance. It is a part o( the sea not well 
kn,»\\n. and is -till quite dangerous to navigate. In general the coasts 
of Samar still require detailed exploration, in particular the eastern 
coast, whi.h is irregular, mountainous, and bordered with small islands 

and large rocks. 

The district of Samar. in addition to the island of this name, includes 
the -mall islands adjacent to its coast, among which may he mentioned 
as most important Bolicuatro, Bateg, Oapul, Dalupiri or Puercos, 
Jomayol <>r Malhon, Laguan or Lavang, or Calamutanay, Manican, 
Parasan, Buadlos, Nazanjos, Mesa. Tagapula, and Limbacanayan. 

The shape of this island is that of an oblong square, hut is very 
irregular in the southwestern part. It is about 201eagues Long in a 
straight liiw from north to south, and about 30 leagues wide in the 
northern part from east to west The country is mountainous, although 
there are man} fine \ allej - under cultivation. 

\i;i. \ \\i> I Ml \i'.i i w EB. 

Tli.' area of tin- island of Samar and the adjacent islands is estimated 
to be h'-.iTl square kilometers, and it- population 1.85,386. In the 
mountains there are about h>. «>»»<» natixe refugees who live an inde- 
pendent and almost -:>\ age life. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 99 



About the middle of the western coast of the island is the town of 
Catbalogan, the capital of the district. It is a much frequented port. 
Its population is 6,072. Other towns are Balangiga, with 4,130; Basey , 
with 12,852; Bobon, Borongan, with 12,563; Calbayog, with 20,725; 
Calviga, Capul, Catarman, with 9,495; Catubig, with 11,517; Gandara, 
with 11,101; Guiuan, with 12,872; Hernani, Jiabon, La Granja, Lanan, 
Oras, Palapag, Pambujan, Palanes, Paric, Pinabigdao, Quinapundan, 
San Julian, Saliedo, San Sebastian, Santa Rita, Sutat, Taranguan, 
Tubig,Villareal, Tumarraga, Santa Margarita, Santo Nino, and Weyler. 

PRODUCTS. 

The products of the island are such as are found in all the archi- 
pelago. There are many fine kinds of wood, especially those suitable 
for shipbuilding, many varieties of wild fruits, various kinds of 
bamboo, roots suitable for food, rattan, game, and fish. Wax and 
honey, abundant in the extensive forests, are much prized by the 
inhabitants; cocoanuts are abundant, and many of the inhabitants are 
engaged in extracting the oil, particularly in the vicinity of Guinan. 
At the present time the three most important products are rice, cocoa- 
nuts, and hemp. Among the medicinal plants grown in this island the 
most famous is the seed called "isigud" or the fruit of San Ignacio, 
known also as Catbalogan seed, because it is grown in the vicinity of 
that town. It has many excellent properties and is claimed by some 
to be an antidote for certain kinds of poisons. (1) Father Murillo, S. J. , 
in his historical geography, speaking of these seeds, says that in 
Peking they are much sought after by the Chinese, because they proved 
so efficacious in an epidemic of cholera, no one dying who took this 
remedy. There are, besides, many other plants having well-known 
medicinal value. 

ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

There are perhaps 300 islands bordering Samar, of which only the 
most important will be mentioned. 

NORTHWESTERN COAST. 

The Balicuatro Islands, situated on the northern coast of Samar, lie 
between Points Balicuatro and Babon, about 18 miles to the east of the 
former. They form two groups with Viri on the west^ composed of 4 
islands, and the group of Cabauan Grande on the east. 

Viri group. — The principal island, Viri, is situated Z\ miles from 
Balicuatro Point. It is about 4 miles long and 3 miles broad. Its 
two towns are Enriqueta and Viri. Quimagaligan Island is situated 
between Viri and Samar, and has one town of the same name as the 
island. 

Cabaulan Grande group is situated to the east of Viri and near to 
the coast of Samar. The principal island of the group is Cabaulan 
Grande. 

Along the same northern coast are found the islands of Laguan, 
Batag, and Cahagayan, which form and shelter the famous port of 
of Palapag. The island of Bacan is about 3 miles to the east of Port 



[00 BEPOET OH THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Palapag and very near to the coast of Samar. In general the northern 
coast ol Samaria bordered with islands, shoals, and rocks, which render 
m:i\ igation \ erj difficult 

THE WEST COAST. 

( hpul. This island lies southeast of the Ticlines group, with which 
it forms the Strait of San Bernardino. It is of medium altitude the 
highest lands being in the vicinity of Abac, which lies on the western 
coast, -j miles from the southern point of the islands. The town of 
Abac has a population of 6,83i. In the northern part of the island 
Is tin' hay known as Puerta de Galeras. Copper is found in the 
mountains. 

TICLINES CROUP. 

This group, composed of three islands, called Calintan, Tuac, and 
Tidin. forms, with the coast of Luzon, the Strait of Ticlines, which 
runs from northeast to southwest. 

Calintan. — This island lies about 5 cables' length to the southeast 
of Point Culasi; it is the most southern of the Ticlines and about a 
mile in length. Its forests abound in ebony. 

Tuac, an island near to and south of Calintan. having a length of 
H miles from north to south and a breadth of one-half a mile from 
east to West, is likewise mountainous and covered with ebony trees. 

Ticlvn. — This island is situated two-thirds of a mile from Point 
Pandan. 

Nara/ngo8 Islands. — This group, situated 7 miles to the south of 
Taj i ran on the coast of Luzon. Is formed by the six little islands called 
San Aureas, Rosa, Del Medio, De la Darsena, De la Aguada, and 
Escarpada. 

Datupvri) or Hog Island, Is situated between the island of Capuland 
the western coast of Samar; it is low. covered with trees, and sur- 
rounded by a rock-strewn beach. It has two towns or villages. Dalupiri 
and El Pilar. Game is very abundant, especially wild hogs. In the 
centra] part there is a lake containing large numbers of crocodiles. 

Tagapula. This island, in the southern part of the Naranjos group, 
18 mountainous and has but one small village. 

Mesa, a small island southeast of Tagapula, is also mountainous. 

Lvmbomcanaya/n Is situated east of Mesa or Talajit; it is quite flat 
and ha- one town. Santo Nino, with a population o\' 5,640, and one 
\ illage. 

Camandag (Sibugay), an island to the east-northeast of Mesa, is cir- 
cular in form, of medium elevation, and about 2 miles in diameter. 

Ltbucan group. This Is a little group, composed o{ three islands 
and various Isles, I ' miles west of Point Traguan. 

Lxbuccm Daoo, about 2 miles in length, i^ t ho largest ^A' t he group 

ami ha- a good anchorage. 

Tangad-Xiimcafi is a small Island l mile northwest o( Libucan-Daco. 
To the BOUthwest of the principal island of the group are the little 
islands of Maraauit I>:i<|iiit. and to the southeast the Lalaya isles. 

Buri. This island i- -J, miles to the northwest o( Ca balogan; it 
has two anchorages, one to the east and the other to the north. 

In some <>f these former islands there are village- or hamlets. 

Ocmahauan Island*. These islands are Bituated near the western 
i ot Samar, B miles to the southwest iA' Catbalogan. They include 



KEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 101 

various islands and isles, as follows: Timpasan, Canalinan-daco, Canali- 
nan-gutiay, Boloang, Cavantiguianes, Balading-daco, and Batgongon. 
These islands lie in the form of an ellipse, 4i miles long in the direction 
west, northwest, south, southeast, and 2£ miles in breadth, in the center 
of which is a fine anchorage, protected against all the monsoons. 

The great Bay of Maqueda is formed by the coast south of Catbalo- 
gan and the islands of Parasan and Buad. 

Parasan. — This island, lying at the entrance of the Bay of Maqueda, 
is 10 miles long from north to south, 5 miles wide, very low, and has 
some sandy beaches. It has one town, of the same name as the island. 

Buad, an island lying to the east of Parasan, at the entrance of the 
Bay of Maqueda, is almost circular in shape, about 4£ miles in diameter, 
and has but little elevation. The town of Buad is of little importance. 
The town of Zumarraga, on the west coast, has a population of 6,401. 
There are several villages. 

Daran. — This is the largest of the islands bordering Samar, and 
extends irregularly from north to south, forming two peninsulas of 
almost equal size. It is low and has extensive mangrove swamps. It 
is situated west of Parasan and Buad and is surrounded by little 
islands. Along the shore there are some villages and hamlets of little 
importance. 

Lintarcan is an island to the south of the bay of Maqueda, in the 
northern part of the entrance to the strait formed by the island of 
Daran, on the coast of Samar. It has a few villages or hamlets along 
the coast. 

Canal de Tanatahas is in the west, northwest extremity of the strait 
of San Juanico, which separates Samar and Leyte. 

Tanahan and Tanabaay. — These island are situated in the middle of 
the channel. 

Tabualla, — This island is situated above the rounded point which 
terminates the narrow entrance of the channel on the north coast. 

Tanabon lies southeast of Jabualla and Tanabaay ; it is triangular in 
shape and elongated from northwest to southeast. Many rocks lie 
along the coast. At the northern entrance of the famous channel of San 
Juanico is the so-called strait of Santa Rita, the name being that of 
a town of 3,011 inhabitants, situated on the western coast of Samar. 

STRAIT OF SAN JUANICO. 

This strait is one of the most attractive natural scenes in the archi- 
pelago. It has an average width of 6 cables length, but in certain 
places is not over 2 cables in width. It is neither regular in depth 
nor in the character of the bottom, the soundings varying from 9 
meters to 20 meters in the middle of the channel. In general, the bot- 
tom is covered with shells in the north and sand in the south, some 
places being rocky. Many little islands and shoals render this pic- 
turesque channel still narrower. The currents in the channel and the 
character of the coasts render navigation very difficult. In the low 
caves in the bluffs along the coasts on the Samar side of this channel 
the remains of human skeletons have been found which in size are 
much superior to those of the actual inhabitants of the neighboring 
islands. 



102 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

BAY OF BAN PEDRO AND SAN PABLO. 

The strait <>t* San Juanico terminates on the south in the bay of San 
Pedro and San Pablo. The town of Guintuhan is at the head of this 
bay, on the most western of the two arms, into which the Cadann or 
Vasey River ent< 

RIO VASEY AND THE CAVES OF SAJOTON. 

The tide water of this river, as indicated by the nipa groves, reaches 
several miles inland; from there the river is very shallow and rapid, 
presently passing a natural arch formed by two fallen rocks support- 
inn' Bach other and surrounded by limestone rocks from 10 to 12 
meters high. In front, and opening like a mouth, rises a sort of 
portal of rocks of beautiful appearance ; they are 8 or 1<» meters in 
height, and through the opening a part of the river may be seen. In 
the wall on the left of this oval court. 11 meters above the water, a 
cave opens, quite easy of access. This cave is about 28 meters in 
depth and terminates in a narrow part, where a species of table or 
altar is formed of the limestone rock. There is found an open space, 
and the grouping of the rocks shows them to be the remains of a 
stalactite cavern, whose roof has fallen in. This is the place called 

"( 'itevas de Sojoton." 

In a little indentation to the east of the bay, about 5 miles from the 
Vasey, i- the little town of Pansignican, and about a mile and a half 
south of this town is Basiao. Between them is a series o\' picturesque 

rocks, reaching an altitude of 28 meters; they are rounded and their 
summits covered with vegetation, and worn away on their bases by 
the action of the water, appearing to rise as gigantic mushrooms 
above the waves. In ancient times the inhabitants buried their heroes 
and old people on these rocks, placing in the coffins all of the objects 
which were mosi valued during life. 

QUIMANOC. 

This little island, situated at the head of the bay and in front i^ the 

river Vase} . is regular in outline, high, and formed on a table. 

THE SOUTH CO LST. 

Mcmicani. This island i> situated U miles to the southwest o\' the 
town of Guinan; it is almost circular, 2^| miles in diameter, and has a 
centra] mountain of medium height. It Is surrounded on all sides. 
except the northwest, i»\ a reef about 3 cables in length. It has a 
room} anchorage between the bluffs on the north o( tnis Island and 
the coast. Various small islands extend in nil directions in front o\' 
this anchorage. The point south of Samar terminates in a little 
island \ erj close to the shore. 

ill i BAST CO \>r. 

This coast i- very little known. While on an expedition to the 
southern part of Samar \\< i had occasion to admire the magnificent Dat- 
ura] port of Pambujan. which, in our opinion, is the best in all the 
islands. It i- situated between points Maritiano and Buri, and is easy 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 103 

of entrance, clear and deep, having in its interior a channel called 
Tangbab, which is well protected from all winds. It is formed by a 
series of small islands extending parallel to the coast between Pambu- 
jan and Hernani. 

A few miles to the north of Pambujan is the famous port of Boron- 
gon, at the entrance of which are the islands of Audis and Davinnbo. 

To the north of Salat are the islands of Catalaban and Anchao. 

More to the north, in front of the port or bay of Oray, lie the 
islands of Hilaban and Tubabao. To the south-southeast of Hilaban 
there extends a series of islands in the form of a semicircle, terminat- 
ing in the little island of Pasig, in front of the town of Dolores. 

THE NORTH COAST. 

The important islands here are as follows: 

Laguan. — This island forms, with the island of Samar, a narrow chan- 
nel, which unites the bay of Lagnan with the strait of Calomatan. 
The town of Lagnan, situated in the southwestern part, has a popula- 
tion of 7,773. There are several villages on this well-populated island. 

Batag. — This island is situated to the north-northeast of Lagnan. It 
is rather low, and aids in sheltering Port Palapag. There are but few 
inhabitants, the only important village being Mahinog. 

Cahagayan. — This is the smallest of the islands which form the port 
of Palapag; it is surrounded b}^ rocks. 

Bacon. — This island lies 3 miles east of the port of Palapag, and 
very near to the coast of Samar; it is formed of high, rocky land. 
All the coast of the north offers but little security to shipping, on 
account of the reefs and little islands which rise close to it. 

THE ISLAND OF LEYTE. 
BOUNDARIES AND GENERAL ASPECT OF THE COUNTRY. 

This island, belonging to the Visayas, is situated between Samar, 
Dinagat, and Mindanao on the southeast, Bohol on the southwest, and 
Masbate on the northwest. It is elongated in shape, very irregular, and 
much wider on the north and south than at the center. It has a length 
of 160 kilometers from north to south, and is 75 kilometers wide at its 
broadest part. On the northern extremity of Leyte, forming with it 
a little channel, is the island of Gingantagan. To the south of the bay 
of Ornoc lie the Camotes Islands, and near to the coast, and in front 
of Mount Sacripante, lies a group of four little islands. The eastern 
coast of Leyte is separated on the northeast from the island of Samar 
by the narrow strait of San Juanico, this island being almost united 
to it by a tongue of land, which forms the northwestern point of Leyte. 
To the east of the island is the island of Biliran, with which it forms a 
narrow channel of the same name. Toward the east exists the channel 
of Tanabatas in the west-northwest extremity of San Juanico, formed 
by the islands of Jabualla, Janabon, and Tanabaay. 

To the north. of the bay of Guinatungan lie the little islands of 
Cabugan. In the southeast the sharp point in wkich this island termi- 
nates forms, with the adjacent island of Panaon, the strait of this 
name and the port of Liloan. The interior of the island is mountainous, 
there being a number of craters of extinct volcanoes. In these 



104 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

mountains arc found Large numbers of shells, which indicate that groat 
physical disturbances have been suffered by this island. At one time 
the water dominated its mountains, and probably caused the separation 
of this land from Samar, with which it undoubtedly in ancient times 
w;,. joined. The large valleys of the island are cultivated by the 
natives. There are two lakes, one called Bito, and the other, a small 
one. in the region of Jam, to the north, this communicating with the sea 
through the Leyte River. 

AREA AND INHABITANTS. 

The province, including the adjacent islands, has an area of 9,976 
square kilometers and 270,4:91 registered inhabitants. 

LANGUAGE. 

Visaya is the language spoken. 

TOWNS. 

The capital, Tacloban, is a beautiful town, situated at the entrance 
<>f the strait of San Juanico, on the bay of San Pedro and San Pablo. 
It is a well-known port. The town has some fine buildings, both pub- 
lic and private. Other towns of importance are: Abuyoc. with 9,534 
Inhabitants; Alanggalang, with 2,038; Albuera, Bato, Babatungan, 
Barugo, with 12,755; Baybay, Buranen, with 21,200; Cabalian, Capoo- 
can, Oajaguaan, Carigara, 13,099; Caibiran. Dagami, with 12,220; 
Dulag. with L3,557; Hitongos, Himmangan, Hindang, Inopacan, Jaro, 
with L0,422; Ilinimdayan. Ley te, Ma-asim, Macrohon. Malibago, Mal- 
itbog, Maripipi. Matalom, Merida, Ormoc, Palos, with 18,297; Palom- 
pon, Pastrana, Quiot, San Isidro de Campo, San Miguel, Sogod Tan- 
anan. with 1 7. 046; Tolosa, Tabonstabon, and Villaba. 

PRODUCTS, [NDUSTBTES, \N1) WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 

The mountains are covered with forests; from these are obtained 
pitch, honey, sugar, and many varieties of building woods. There 
arc mine- of gold, lead, and silver, and mines of sulphur. The 
exports of the island are important, among these beine; hemp of the 
value of 16,000,000, sugar of the value Of $50,000, and chocolate, 
coffee, oil, corn, cattle, horses, and hogs to the value of $63,000. 
Wax, honey, bird's nests, shells, sponges, and pearls are exported in 

small quantities. The most important product is hemp, no other 
province being able to compete with Leyte, because its plantations 
nave been nnder cultivation for forty years. These plantations require 
very little work, the crop being permanent, abundant, and o\' excel- 
led quality. There are hut four interior towns. The important 
ports are racloban and Garrigari on tin* east coast, and Ormoc, 

baybay, Uongos, Ma-asim, ami Malitbog on the west coast. The 
land within the jurisdiction of the province is 572,000 hectares, of 

which 250,000 are under cultivation, the remainder of the land being 

mountain or grazingland. In some o\' the towns o( the eastern coast 
ili'- women are very skillful in the manufacture of fabrics and in 
embroidering. The eastern coast ^\' Leyte has many <xood roads suit- 
able f (, r carnages at all times of the year. The western coast has but 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 105 

few such, and others suitable for horses. Communication by sea is 
more frequent, as the large number of gulfs and bays, although they 
may cause breaks in the roads, furnish good interior waterways. 

ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

THE NORTH COAST. 

Maripipi. — This, the most northern island, is a rounded mountain^ 
covered with vegetation, and having an elevation of 911 meters above 
sea level. 

Sambabuas. — These are small islands or rocks very close together and 
surrounded by a sandy shoal. 

Balizan. — This important island lies to the extreme northwest of the 
island of Le}^te, and has approximately a length of 20 miles from north- 
west to southeast and a breadth of 10 miles. It is mountainous, quite 
high, and in the north is seen the beginning of the small mountain chain 
which divides it longitudinally. The highest peak of this chain is in the 
western part. The most important towns are Almeria, Naval, and 
Bilizan on the western coast, and Caibizan on the eastern coast. There 
is a multitude of little villages along the coast. This island is noted for 
the sulphur springs in the mountains. 

Calumpijan. — This little island lies about a mile from the shore, east 
of the sharp mountain peak called Pacduhuuan. The little islands of 
Polo and Calajit lie in the middle of the little channel formed by the 
island of Bilizan on the north coast of Negros. 

THE WEST COAST. 

Gigantangan, — This island lies li miles from Point Taglanigan, north- 
west of Leyte, and is 2 miles long from north-northwest to south-south- 
east and 1 mile wide. 

Calangaman. — This is a little island 7 miles west of Vantay. From 
Villaba to Ormoc nothing but very small islands and reefs are found. 

Camotes. — This is the name given to some small islands which form 
a group united by little reefs. They are called Pacijan, Poro, and 
Poson, there being a little island to the north of Poicajon called Talong. 
They are situated to the north of the Bay of Ormoc and of Pozios, 
which is the most northern of the group, and 5£ miles from Point 
Catunangan, which forms a wide and deep pass. The islands are 
inhabited and have some small towns and villages. 

Cuatro Islas group. — These are about the only islands found near 
the coast between Ormoc and Inopacan. The most northern of the 
islands is the smallest, and is called Duquio. The largest, south- 
southwest, is Mahabas; another, nearer the coast, Apit, and that 
faithest to the south, Himaquitan. 

Canigao. — This is an island of little importance, and is about the 
only one found between Inopacan and Ma-asim. 

THE SOUTH COAST. 

Lamasana. — This island is situated 2 miles southeast of the south- 
ern point of Leyte, is long and narrow* 4^ miles from north to south 
and 1 mile in breadth. It has two little towns, San Bernado and 
Triana. 

p c— vol 3—01 12 



106 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Pontoon* — This island is separated from the southeastern part of 
Leyte by the little -trait of the same name; it is mountainous, long 
and narrow, and extends overl7i miles from north-northwest to south- 
Boutheast. It is 5 miles wide in the northern part. The eastern coast 
has a picturesque appearance, presenting from time to time beautiful 
cascades and large numbers of little creeks. It is well populated, the 
principal towns being Silvan in the north and San Ricardo in the south. 
Gold is found near Point Pinutan. 

There are no islands of importance on the eastern coast, except those 
already mentioned in connection with Samar. 



CHAPTER X. 
ISLANDS OF MINDANAO AND BASILAN. 

[Maps Nos. 26, 27, and 28 of the Atlas of the Philippines.] 

ISLAND OF MINDANAO IN GENEKAL. 

BOUNDARIES AND AREA. 

The island of Mindanao, the most southern in all the archipelago, 
is situated between the parallels of latitude 5° 36' and 9° 49' north and 
longitude 125° 30' and 130° east from Madrid. It is, next to Luzon, 
the largest island in the archipelago. According to the data of the 
Institute of Geography and Statistics, its area, including the small 
adjacent islands, is 99,450 square kilometers, which is a little less than 
that given by Fathers Buceta and Bravo in their dictionaries of the 
Philippines. 

NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 

The population, according to the census of 1887, was 209,087, but 
this figure did not include the natives of the interior. 

LANGUAGES. 

The following languages are spoken: Spanish, somewhat corrupted; 
Moro and its dialects, Joloano, Samal, Yacam, Maguindanao, and the 
dialect of the coast of Davao, Visa3 T a, Cebuano, and Bagobo, Tagaca- 
olo, Bilan, Montes, Mamanna, Tiruray, Tagabili, and Dulangan. 

TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND HAMLETS. 

The great island of Mindanao is divided into seven districts, as fol- 
lows: First, Zamboanga; second, Misamis; third, Surigao; fourth, 
Davao; fifth, Catobato; sixth, Basilan, and seventh, Lanao. Ecclesias- 
tically, one part of it belongs to the bishopric of Jaro and the other to 
that of Cebu. 

MOST IMPORTANT PRODUCTS OF THE ISLAND. 

The mineral products of the island of Mindanao are not well knowm 
For many years the natives have gathered some gold, which the}^ pre- 
sent for exchange in the provinces of the north, where some experi- 
ments have been carried on. For many years the auriferous deposits 
of the district of Misamis have had great renown. According to Don 
Enrique Abella, the auriferous zone is situated between the Caturan 
River to the east and the Iligan River on the west, and along the beds 
of the Bulalacao Iparan, Cagayan, Bigaan, and Catman rivers. Coal 
deposits exist in the vicinity of Sibugney, Surigao, and Mati. Sul- 

107 



J08 REPORT OF THE PHELIPFI*TB commission. 

ph ur is plentiful in the vicinity of the various volcanoes of the island, 
and mineral waters are abundant at Catobato and other point-. 

On account of the excellent quality of the soil, the abundant rain-. 
and the influence of the climate the entire island is covered with veg- 
etation, generally by forests. Many kinds of wood are found in the 
forests, those useful for naval construction and building purposes 
being abundant; among these may he mentioned guijo, molave narra. 
ipil, ma latum baga, Lanan, camagon, manconi or ironwood. camuning, 
mangasinoso, palo-maria. teak, pagatpat, mangachapuy. sibucao, ban- 
cal, etc., and other similar plants, such as grasses and the sun juniper, 
and some cypress and cogan or reed grass. The bamboo known as 
boja, rattan, and other trailers form impenetrable jungles. The cocoa- 
nut, the betel nut, the betel pepper, and bananas grow abundantly. 
Hemp is grown, and the chocolate and coffee bushes grow very lux- 
uriantly and very rapidly. Other products are cabonegro. cotton. 
indigo, pineapple, sugar cane. rice, and tobacco. Cloves and nutmegs 
are found on the Hay of Sibuguey, where the cinnamon tree spon- 
taneously grows. Corn, sweet potatoes, nami, ube, gabe. and analo- 
gous products grow abundantly in all districts, as well as all kinds of 
fruits, among them the delicious mangosteen. Gums and resins are 
obtained from the forests of the interior. In short, the vegetable 
wealth of Mindanao not only equals, but surpasses, that of Luzon and 
the Visayas, although, in truth, not so extensively exploited. 

NOr is Mindanao behind the other islands in the animal kingdom. 
All kinds of monkeys are found in every part. There are large num- 
ber- of cattle, horses, and buffalos, the most of these being domesti- 
cated o]- owned by some known individual. Domestic hogs are found 
and wild hogs are more abundant, because the Mohammedan inhabitants 
do not use them. On the other hand, deer, which are found in all the 
forests, are much sought after. Many reptiles and insect-, some of 
them poisonous, are found, such as snakes, scorpions; lizards, and large 
numbers of leeches are found in the rivers and on the tree-. A large 
species of lizard, called the "iguana," sometimes reaches a length of 
'1 meter- Snake- of the boa family attain extraordinary size. Croco- 
diles of large size are found in the rivers. A large variety of birds 
i- found, the calao or horn bill being abundant in the forest-. There 
are many varieties of pigeons and doves, among the-i 1 being the so- 
called punalada, on account of a bright red spot which is on it- breast 
Parrots, cockatoo-, jungle fowl, kingfishers, etc., are very numerous. 
Among animal- should be mentioned monkeys and the eaguang, an 

animal -oinew hat resembling a monkey and somewhat resembling a bat. 
Among the birds may be mentioned the salangana, which make- the 
valuable nests found in the caves of Mindanao and theadjacent islands. 

FIRST DISTRICT, OB PROVINCE OF ZAMBOANGA. 
no i NDARIES \\i> \i:i: \. 

This district i- bounded on the north b v Point Maraleg, in the prov- 
ince of Misarais; on the east bj the district ^ Cottabato; on the south 
b\ the island of Basilan, and on the west b\ the sea ^ Celebes. It 
has an area of 29,846.96 square kilometers, the greater part ^i which 
real land, with the exception of the country around the capital 
town, where the inhabitants cultivate some rice. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 109 

Concerning the rest of the country but little is known, though it is 
supposed that in the region of Sibuguey, which has a population of 
80,000, there are extensive areas of land under cultivation. 

NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 

According to the general statistics of the bishopric of Jaro for 1897, 
there are 19,903 Christian inhabitants in Zamboanga and the surround- 
ing towns, 8,000 Mohammedans, and in the unexplored region of Sibu- 
guey there is a population of 90,000 pagan Subanos. 

LANGUAGES. 

The following languages are spoken: Spanish, Moro, Samal, Subano, 
and Chavacano (which is a mixture of Spanish), Tagalog, Visayan, and 
Moro. 

TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND HAMLETS. 

Zamboanga is the capital town of Mindanao. It is beautifully 
situated on an extensive plain covered with cocoanut groves and 
innumerable rice fields. Many of its buildings are of masonry, and 
others of boards, with galvanized zinc or nipa roofs. Prominent 
among these are the church and convent, the government house, the 
house of the governor of the district, and those of the naval commander 
and of the chief of engineers. The military hospital is a commodious 
and elegant building recently constructed. The Fortress of Pilar, with 
its strong stone walls, barracks, storehouses, etc. , constructed under 
the direction of P. Melehoz de Vera, S. J. , was of the greatest value 
during the invasions of piratical Moros in ancient times. The port, 
although open to the sea if the wind is from the south or southwest, is 
protected against the winds from the north and east; while in the river 
of Masinlog, 3 miles to the southeast, there is an anchorage protected 
against all winds. There is a beautiful quay, and a light-house of the 
sixth class (starry) showing a fixed red light. Belonging to the town 
of Zamboanga, which has a population of 7,634, are the villages of 
Santa Maria, Gusu, and Tipong, or San Roque. The towns belonging 
to this province are Tetuan, and the villages of Putig and Talontalon, 
with a population of 5,572; Mercedes, with the villages of Manicahan, 
Catumbal, and Boalan, with a population of 3,839; Bolong, with the 
villages of Curuan, Taguite, and Tamion, with a population of 1,144; 
and Iyala, with the villages of Talisayan, Erenas, or Malayal, with a 
population of 1,655, Sinonong, and the penal colony of San Ramon. 

SECOND DISTRICT, OR PROVINCE OF MISAMIS. 
BOUNDARIES AND AREA. 

This district includes the northern part of Mindanao, the island of 
Camiguin, Silina, and various smaller islands. It is bounded on the 
north by the sea, which bathes the coast of Negros, Siquijor, and 
Bohol; on the south by the interior of Mindanao; on the east by the 
district of Surigao; and on the west by the district of Zamboanga. The 
coast line from the ]\ 'arcielagos Islands to Point Dimata is 102 leagues 
in length. It has an area of about 1,136.95 square kilometers. 



Ill) REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

\l HBEB OF INHABITANTS. 

The population, according to the census of 1887, is 116,024, but 
considering the numberof unknown villages in the interior it is prob- 
ably much greater. According to the general statistics of the bish- 
opric of Oebu, published in L897, the number of inhabitants in this 
district is 1.69,256. 

LANGUAGES. 

The laneruaeres are Visaya-Cebuano, Montes, and Malav-Moro. 

TOWNS. VILLAGES. AND HAMLETS. 

The capital town is Cagayan de Misamis, which, with the adjoining 
village oi Gura, has a population of 11,029. It is situated on level land 
on the bank of the river of the same name. Its public buildings, and 
some of the private buildings, are well constructed. The towns of this 
district arc Tagoloan, with a population of 8.498. and with the village 
of Agusan, situated on the northern coast on the Bay of Macajalar, or 
Macabalan; San Martin, Minsoro, Malitbog, Pamploma. Siloo. Santa 
Ana, Jasaan, which, with the villages of Canajanan. Solana. Villanucva. 
Patrocinio, Claveria,and Bubuntigan, have a population of 4..">*)4: and 
Balingasag, with the villages of Casulag. Canal. San Roque, Rosario, 
Lagonlong, Salay, and Concepcion, has a population of 9.33<». Talisayan 
has a population of 5,877, and adjoining it the hamlets of Balinguan. 
Quinugeritan, Santa Inez. San Miguel, and Portolin. Gingoog nas a 

Simulation of 4,615, and adjoining it the hamlets of Medina, Minlagas, 
dyungan, Linugus. San Juan, Consuelo, San Roque, and Asturias. 
Other towns arc ( iuinsilitan. Sagay. Catarman. Manbajao, Mahinog, 
[ponan.Opol, Molugan, Salvador, with a population of 6,640; Alubijid. 
[nitao, Naanan, Lligan, with a population of 2.-±()*>: and Misamis. with a 
population of 6,313. The latter town is situated on the west shore of the 
Bay <>f Paneuil, having an anchorage included between Point Fuerte. 
<>ii the north, and Point Pubut. the eastern termination of Mount 
Bucayan, which is situated 1 mile southwest of Point Fuerte. It is 
a land-locked port, protected against wind and sea. It is suitable for 
all kinds of shipping, and all kinds of boats can tie up close to the 
shore in front of the old town, a single plank serving to make connec- 
tion with the land. For a distance of 8 miles thehottom is sandy. 
The town is situated on the northern side of the port on a little tongue 
of land cut by a canal, which empties to tin 1 northwest iA' the fort. 
Other towns arc Locnlan. .limine/.. Aloran. Oroquieta. with a popula- 
tion of 1.2,200; Layanan, Langaran, with a population oi L2,219; Pali- 
angao, and Sumilao, with a population of 4,122. There are also the 
hamlets of Tagmalusag, Calipayan, Sancanan, Tanculan, Balao, Guila- 
San Juan, Maluco, fmpasugong, and Silipon, the town of 
Sevilla, with a population of l.ll.\ and the hamlets { )\' Calasungay, 
Linabao, Bugcaon, Valencia, Covadonga, Monserrat, Oroquieta, and 
Silay. 

rtaining to this district Is the comandancia of Dapitan, which is 

bounded on the north by the Visayan Sea, on the east by Misamis, on 

tin- south bj Zamboanga, and on the west also by the Visaya Sea. It 

►f about 1,056 square kilometer-. '. mong its town- are 

Dapitan, the capital, with a population i^\ 7,627, having as adjacent 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. Ill 

villages La Conquista, Barcelona, Dampolan, Ilaya, and Libay; Dipo- 
log, with a population of 5,090, with its dependent villages Polanco 
and Sianib; and Lubungan, having a population of 4,556, and the 
dependent villages of Duhinop, Langitian, Manocan, Matan, Miatan, 
Labao, Toocaan, and Sera. 

THIRD DISTRICT, OR PROVINCE OF SURIGAO. 

BOUNDARIES AND AREA. 

This province is situated in the northeastern and eastern part of the 
province of Mindanao, and includes the islands of Bucas, Binagat, 
Ginatuan, Gipdo, Siargao, Sibunga, and various small islands. It is 
bounded on the north by the strait of Surigao, on the east by the 
ocean, on the south by the district of Davao, and on the west by the 
district of Misamis. It is 124.25 kilometers in length from north to 
south and 97.98 kilometers in breadth from east to west in its widest 
part, its area being, according to official figures, 1,070,190 hectares, of 
which less than 10,000 are under cultivation. 

NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 

The official census of 1887 gives a population of 67,760; the official 
guide for 1898, 85,125. According to the official statistics of the 
Bishopric of Cebu, published in 1897, the number of inhabitants in 
this district reaches 113,105. 

LANGUAGES. 

The languages are Visaya, Mamama, Manobo, and Mandaya. 

TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND HAMLETS. 

The capital town, Surigao, with the village of Ananaon, has a pop- 
ulation of 9,254. It is situated on the right bank of the river in the 
extreme northern part of the island of Mindanao, four miles southeast 
of Point Bilaa. This district, until 1858 called Caraga, was the site of 
the first Spanish mission in these islands. The important towns in this 
district, not enumerating small villages, are: Dinagat, with 6,228 
inhabitants; Cantilan, with 12,240; Placer and Taganaan, with 4,713; 
Gigaquit, with 9,997; Numancia, with 4,328; Cabuntog, with 5,129; 
Tanday, with 8,345; Lianga, with 5,350; Bislig, with 7,217; La Esper- 
anza, with 2,460; Talacogon : with 3,560; Prosperidad, with 3,144; 
Veruela, with 4,597; Tativa, with 1,343, and Maynit, with a popula- 
tion of 4,607. Pertaining to this district is the comandancia of Butuan, 
situated on the bay of the same name in the northern part of Min- 
danao, and bounded on the north by the bay and district of Surigao, 
on the east and south by the aforesaid point, and on the west by the 
district of Misamis. It is one of the finest districts, and has a popula- 
tion of 12,013. In 1872 a monument of Hernando de Magallanes was 
erected to commemorate the place where the first. mass was said in the 
Philippines. It is of stone, in two parts, and surmounted by a trun- 
cated pyramid. The inscription is in gold letters on an Italian marble 
slab. Besides Maynit and its villages, all of the towns and villages 
situated on the banks of the river Agusan belong to this comandancia. 



H2 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

]«)!'i;TH DISTRICT. OB PROVINCE OF DAVAO. 
BOUNDARIES AND AREA. 

This district or province is situated in the southeastern part of Min- 
danoa. It occupies the territory formerly known as Nueva Guipuzeoa, 
and extends from the Bay of Mayo, on the Pacific Ocean, to Point 
Malaluna, Dear the Gulf of Tuna, on tne south coast of Mindanao. It 
i- hounded on the north by the district of Surigao, on the south by 
Cottabato, between these two being Lake Buluan and the country 
called Boayen, or Buhayen; and on the southeast by the Pacific Ocean, 
where the port of Balete and the Bay of Pujaga are found. The islands 
of Samal, Talicud, Pujaga, Saranginas, Sirangan, Moleron, Limbal, 
and the little islands of Malipano and Sigaboy belong to this district. 
The distance from Point Tagobon, south of the Bay of Mayo, to Cape 
San A.ugustin is 48.23 kilometers: from the center of the bay north- 
west to the town of Rosario, at the mouth of the Hirer Hijo. L02.09 
kilometers, and from this town to Point Sarangani, on the east coast 
of the district, L*'>1. 58 kilometers. The widest part of the western 
coast from Point Gorda to the interior is 57.70 kilometer-. 

NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 

Although this is a very fertile district it has hut few inhabitants, the 
official census of L897 giving 3,966. According- to the official register 
of the Bishopric of Jaro, to which this district belongs, and which was 

i published in L895, the population, excluding Caraga, Catel, and 
Sazanga, was 4,810. 

LANGUAGES. 

The Languages are Bisaya, Bagobo, Guianga, Tagabana, Tagacaolo, 
At;u Calagan, Manobo, Moro, Tagabili, Bilan, and Sanguil. 

TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND EIAMLETS. 

The town of I )avao. the capital, has broad, well laid-out streets. The 
parish house is one of the hot in Mindanao. There are many other 
targe, well-built houses. Santa Cruz and Malalae are situated on one 
of the finest ports in the archipelago. It is of good depth, sheltered 
from :ill winds, and easy of entrance even in had weather. 

Among the principal town- of this district are Davao, the capital. 
with a population of L3,874, which ha- a large number of -mall towns 
dependent upon it. and Penaplata, with a population of L,848, which 
also includes a large number of small hamlets. 

Pertaining to this district i- the comandancia of Mati. which ha- the 
;t area of an\ ',u the archipelago. 9,034 square kilometers. The 
principal towns are Mali, with a population of 2,475; Sigaboy, with a 
population of 2,217; Caraga, with a population of t,054; Nanay, with 
J population of 2,649, and Cateel. with a population i>( 6,561. There 
i- a Large number of -mall \ illa&res and hamlet-. 




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F c — VOL 3 — 01 13 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 113 

THE FIFTH DISTRICT OR PROVINCE OF COTTABATO. 
BOUNDARIES AND AREA. 

This district is bounded on the north b} T the great mountain ranges, 
which separate it from Misamis and Surigao; on the east by the Bay 
of liana and Zamboanga from Point Fleches; in the interior by the dis- 
trict of Davao, and on the south and west by the Sea of Celebes. As 
the interior of this province is almost entirely unknown, it is almost 
iniDossible to determine its exact area. It is estimated to be about 
28,293.97 square kilometers. 

NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 

The census of 1887 gives a population of 4,148, and the records of 
the diocese of Jaro, published in 1895, of but 3,014. 

LANGUAGES. 

The languages spoken are Spanish, Moro-Maguindanao, Tiruray, 
Dulangan, Manobo, Ata, Bilan, and Tagabili. 

TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND HAMLETS. 

Cottabato, the capital, has a population of 1,012. It is situated on 
the left bank of the Pulangui, or Rio Grande, whose banks are inhab- 
ited by Moros. There is a magnificent fort, or castle, situated on the 
hill, and here is established a semaphore for the guidance of boats 
crossing the bar at the entrance. Part of the town is flooded during 
high tide. The commerce is in the hands of a large number of Chinese, 
who have established themselves here. Polloc, with a population of 
472, is situated on the south coast, east of the great bay o£ Illana. Its 
port is well sheltered, clean, and deep, and although open on the west, 
it is protected by the island of Bongos, which lies just in front of the 
entrance. It is a military comandancia, belonging to Cottabato, and 
has a naval station established in the aforesaid town. It has a dry' 
dock for the use of gunboats. At Tamontaca, which has a population 
of 2,420, there is an orphan asylum for Moro children, under the care 
of the Jesuit priests. In the bay of Illana there is a military station 
at Parang-parang, on the other side of the bay of Polloc. The forts 
of Malabang, Baras, and Tucusan are under the command of the chief 
military officer of Parang-parang. A military hospital, and a supply 
depot are located at Parang-parang. There is a fort, and a line church 
of gothic architecture. The town is abundantly supplied with clear, 
cool water. The notable Reina Regente fort is situated in the center 
of the Moro country. (See Pis. XL VI, XLVII, and XLVIII.) At 
Point Pola, within the jurisdiction of Cottabato, is the military station 
of Lebac, established to restrain piracy, and the insolence of the 
Moros. (See PI. XLIX.) 

SIXTH DISTRICT OR PROVINCE OF BASILAN AND ADJACENT ISLANDS. 
BOUNDARIES AND AREA. 

The beautiful island of Basilan is situated in the extreme southern 
part of the Philippine Archipelago. It is bounded on the north by 



114 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

the strait of Basilan, on the south and west by the seaof Jolo, and on 
the east by the seaof Celebes. It is 12 Leagues long from east to west 
and 8 broad Prom north to south. 

MMl'.Ki: OF [NHABITANTS, 

The official census gives a population of 1,119; the records of the 
bishopric of Jaro for L895, 1,424. 

LANGUAGES. 

In the capital town Spanish is spoken, the natives using their own 
languages, Moro, Samal, and Moro-Jacan. 

TOWNS. VILLAGES, AND HAMLETS. 

The capital town is [sabela. At the naval station there is a dry 
dock for gunboats, a crane capable of lifting 20 tons, carpenter 
and iron shops, an iron and bronze foundry, a magazine, and machin- 
ery worked by steam. The port is a beautiful strait, 3i miles long, 
having an average width of 600 meters, and is formed by the islands 
of Basilan and Malamaui. It is capable of sheltering a good-sized 
fleet. On the island of Malamaui, in front of the quay, is a large 
coaling station, which is used by all of the ships of the naval division 
of the south. A small stream called the Chorrillo furnishes an 
abundance of cool, healthful water, which is carried to the station by 
a pipe. At the most strategic point of the town there is a tort called 
Isabel II. It is composed of 4 bulwarks, occupying the -t angles, and 
is entirely surrounded by a moat. This fort not only dominates the 
narrow channel, but serves as adefense against the Moros, who might 
come down, from the mountains or along the river Pasajan. The 
Navy has a hospital situated at the mouth of the Pasajan, just in 
front of the station. (See PI. LXI.) Six small villages are included 
in the town of Isabela. The Pilas Islands, situated to the west of 
Basilan, are the following : Pilas, Mamangat. Balug. Calug, Sangboy, 
Tinga, Mataja, Dasalan, Caludlud, Cujangan, Palajanjan. Minis. 
Mamanac. and Pasig-Posilan. Other adjacent islands are : Pullman. 
Salupin, Lalanan, Tapiantana, and Buentua. 

-I VENTH DISTRICT OB PROVINCE OF LANAO. 

BOUNDARIES AND AREA. 

This district includes all of the territory of Lanao, extending on the 
north as far as Lumbayanequi, and on the south as far as the watershed 
between the Laguna and the bay of tllana. 

\i Mi'.r.i; OF INHABITANTS. 

As this district has been but recently created, and a> it has not been 
completely dominated by Spanish arms, it has not been possible to form 
towns nor to take a census of its inhabitants, the floating population 
being composed of those in camp. There are Large numbers o( pagan 
Moros, of the Malanaoc tribe, the town of Bato alone having a popu- 
lation of 1,000. All ^\' the inhabitants of the towns and village- about 
tin- lake number more than L00.000. 



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KEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 115 

LANGUAGES. 

The language spoken in this district is Moro, of the Melanao dialects. 

TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND HAMLETS. 

There are no organized towns or villages — only garrisons and forts — 
the principal of these being Marahui. The most noticeable feature of 
this district is the lake from which it has taken its name — Lanoa. The 
extreme northern part of this lake lies at about the eighth degree of 
north latitude, and the center about 124° 19' east longitude from 
Greenwich — that is to say, about the meridian of Iligan. It is there- 
fore in the eastern and widest part of the isthmus, which separates the 
bays of Iligan and Illana. The principal Moro towns on the lake are 
Ganasi and Taraca, on the eastern shore. The lake is quite deep, in 
some places from 3 to 5 fathoms. The lake is about 8 leagues in length 
and contains 6 islands, on the larger of which — Nuza — there are more 
than 500 houses. The lake is surrounded by towns and little villages, 
these being more than 60 in number. The lake empties by a waterfall 
into the river Iligan. 

THE ISLANDS ADJACENT TO MINDANAO. 

Something has already been said of the adjacent islands, particularly 
of the most important one Basilan. Others of some importance are 
on the south coast. 

THE PANUBIGAN GROUP. 

Ohctanga. — This island forms, with the coast of Mindanao, a channel 
which connects the bays of Sibuguey and Dumanquilas. 

Quidabun Group. — This group is composed of the islands of Muda, 
Bacula, and Baya. 

Ticala and Sagarayan. — These islands are situated south of the 
point north of the bay of Dinas, 

Bongo. — This island is situated in front of the port of Polloc, its 
northern extremity being 4-^ miles to the west-southwest of Point 
Tugapangan. It is covered with forests and is rather low. It is not 
inhabited. 

Timaco. — This island is formed of a hill entirely covered with for- 
ests, the trees reaching to the water. It is situated at the mouth of the 
Rio Grande, scarcely a mile to the south. This hill of Timaco and that 
of Pico, Cogonal, more to the south, serve as excellent landmarks to 
the mouth of the river. 

Sarangani. — This is the name given to two islands and a little isle 
situated 6 miles south of the point of Mindanao. The natives call 
the larger one Balut-marila and the smaller one Balut-parida. Balut- 
marila, which is quite high and covered with vegetation, is inhabited 
by a considerable number of Sanguiles and Bilanes. In the center of 
the island is a volcano, from which smoke occasionally rises. 

In the interior of the bay of Davao is found the island of Tres 
Arbores, near the mouth of the river Hijo; the islands of Pandasan 
and Copiat; the Cruz Mands, near the coast of Samar; the island of 
Sigaboy and the island of Samar, the largest and most important, 
which has a perimeter of 42 miles. The land is quite fertile and pro- 

p c— vol 3—01 14 



116 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

(luce- excellent chocolate, which, if cultivated on a Large scale, would 
prove a source of great wealth. The principal towns are situated on 
the western coast. 

Malipcmo is a picturesque little island to the east of Samar. 

Talicut, or Guwoc, is situated to the southwest of Samar. It is low 
and covered with forests, having some marshy spots, and Is uninhab- 
ited, as no fresh water is to be found. According to the Samales, 
excellent tobacco can be raised there. 

On the east coast: 



This is a little island situated at the entrance of the bay of this name. 
in front of the town of Mati. 



To the south-southwest of Point Batiano is a little semicircular island 
with this expressive name. From Point Cauit there is no island of 
importance. Davis lies in front of the bay of Bislig. Arangasa lies 
just beyond the bay of Lianga, and Macangoni and other little islands 
to the northeast of Tandag. 

Beyond Point Cauit, northeast of the peninsula of Surigao, are sev- 
eral larger and more important islands. 

On the north coast: 

8ULUAN, OR MEN A SENA I. 

This island lies 10 miles south, 38 degrees east of the southern point 
of Samar. It is a little island about a mile long, rather elevated, and 
quite bold in outline. 



This island is situated 9 miles west of the southern point of Samar. 
and is also called Tomonjol. It is irregular in outline and of but slight 
elevation. 



This island Is situated north of the northern point of Mindanao, 
from which it is separated by a narrow channel. It is long and nar- 
row, and extends 364 miles from north to south from Point Desola- 
eion to the point south of Gabo, and is 12J miles in greatest breadth. 
It is traversed by a Little mountain chain, and is well settled along 
the coasts, Above the point south of Dinagat. and very close to the 

western part, there are two islands, from ;> to 6i miles long, separated 

from each other and from the main island by two narrow channels. 

The inhabitants of Dinagat are occupied in the collection o\' gold ami 

also in the collection of natural products, Mich a> wax. honey, etc 



This narrow island, having an altitude of 314 meters, is situated 5 
miles southwest of the point near the town ^A' Dinagat. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 117 



This island is situated 3i miles east of the northern extremity of 
Gipdo, and 5i miles north of Point Bilaa. 

UNIP GROUP. 

In front of the hay which opens southwest of the island of Dinagat 
lies the Onip Group, composed of Sibanag, Unip, Tabucaya, and vari- 
ous smaller islands. 



The northern coast of this island is about 9i miles west of Point 
Desolacion. 



This island is southeast of Dinagat, to which it seems to be united by 
a submerged bank. It lies 16 miles north of the nearest coast of Min- 
danao, is irregular in outline, and 18 miles long from north to south. 
A little mountain chain runs from north to south. There are various 
small towns and little ports. About Siargao are various small islands 
and isles, all of little importance, with the exception of the Bucas 
Group. This is situated south-southwest of Siargao, and is composed 
of three small islands lying close together. To the west-northwest of 
this group is Guinatuan and the island of Cabusuan to the south of it. 

CAMIGUIN (PLATE LXIIl) . 

This island lies 5-J- miles north of Point Bagacay, and has a length of 
12 miles from north to south, and a breadth of 8 miles from east to 
west, being very mountainous and rugged. It is formed of a central 
mountain which reaches an altitude of 1,627 meters above sea level. 
The island produces rice, good tobacco, wax, and chocolate in abun- 
dance. It has a population of 21,122, most of them engaged in agricul- 
ture or fishing. Along the rest of the coast from Point Bagacay to 
Point Gorda only shoals and little islands are found. Two, however, 
are worth mentioning: Sipaca, a little island formed by a conical 
mountain, and the island of Lapinag, which forms channels with the 
coast and which is very picturesque. (See Plate LXIV.) 

TICTIRAN. 

This island is situated almost east of the southern point of Zambo- 
anga, and extends from east-northeast to west-southwest a distance of 
2i miles. It is low, covered with vegetation, and bordered on the 
southwest, south, and east by coral reefs. 



This island lies a short distance northeast of the preceding, and 
extends for 7 miles from northwest to southeast, being widest and 
highest at the northern end. 



US REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

TIM \l,( I' \\ \\l> H\<>\ 

These islands arc :;.' and 2| miles, respectively, from the qortheast- 
ern extremity of Sacol. They arc quite small, the former being quite 
elevated. 

M LLINIPA. 

This Island Is situated south of Sacol and north of the eastern entrance 
of the -trait of Basilan. 

ISLANDS ADJACENT TO ISABELA DE BASILAN. 

That which is called the Basilan Group is composed of various 

islands, the most of them scattered over the region south and west of 
[sabela. The principal ones are as follows: 

TEINGA. 

This Is the most northern island of the group; lies L8 miles north- 
west of Basilan, and is small, low, and covered with trees. 

TAPCANTANA. 

This is the most southern of the group and lies .south of the most 
southern point of Basilan. 

PILAS. 

This is the largest of the islands adjacent to Basilan. and has a con- 
siderable Dumber of Moro inhabitants, as do all the important islands 

of this group. West of Pilas there are various small islands, which 
form with it good anchorages. 

OREJAS DE UEBRE, OR SANGBOIS. 

These islands axe 3 miles south-southwest of Teinga, and have an 
elevation of 178 and 256 meters, respectively. The islands are quite 
aotable, especially the mountain on the southern island. This appears 

like a cupola, from which the Hat lands extend. 

TAMUC. 

Thi- island rises in front of the western coast of Basilan, northwest 
of Tatcantana. 

BUBE w. 

This inland is situated north of Tatcantana, and is very similar to it. 

m LLAM Ml. 

This island is verj near the north coast of Basilan, with which it 
forms an excellent anchorage suitable for large ship-. It lies in front 

of the tow n of [sabela, and form- w ith the coast iA' Basilan the famous 
-i tail «>f [sabela. 



CHAPTEK XI. 

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF JOLO A1S T D THE ISLANDS OF PARA- 

GUA, BALABAC, A1STD CAGAYAX BE JOLO. 

[Maps Nos. 26 and 28 of the Atlas of the Philippines.] 

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF JOLO. 

BOUNDARIES AND AREA. 

Authors have not been entirely in accord in regard to the boundaries 
and area of the Archipelago of Jolo. The Derrotero del Archipielago 
Filipino (Nautical Guide to the Philippines) considers as belonging to 
it the long chain of islands which extends for 180 miles and divides it 
into three principal groups — Basilan on the east, Jolo in the center, 
and Tawi Tawi on the west. The official guide, following Antonio 
Garin, limits the group to the islands lying between Balanan, in longi- 
tude 121° 52' east of Greenwich, and Tumindo, on the west, lying 
119° 15' east of Greenwich. This excludes the island of Basilan and 
its adjacent islands, including in the archipelago those islands lying 
between the parallels of 4? 30' and 6° 25' north latitude. This seems 
to be the most acceptable boundary, although in reality Basilan and its 
adjacent islands form a separate province of the Jolo Archipelago. 
The seas bathing the coasts of the Jolo Archipelago are those of Jolo 
or Mindoro on the north and Celebes on the south. The islands con- 
stituting the Archipelago of Jolo may be divided into four groups. 

FIRST GROUP. 

The Balanguingi Group is situated between the parallels of latitude 
5 59' and 6° 17' north, and longitude 121° 29' and 121° 51' east from 
Greenwich. It is composed of eighteen islands, of which seven are of 
medium size and the rest only isles. The most northern are Balauan 
and Buartia, which are separated from each other by a very narrow 
channel. To the east are the two islands called Dipsilut, which has 
close to it the little isle of Mamud, and Tonguil. To the southwest 
are the islands of Mamanoc, Tarol, Tuncolan, Sipal, and the principal 
island Balanguingi, the famous pirate resort. Between this island and 
the eastern extremity of Jolo are the little islands of Bongao and 
Limiza. 

SECOND GROUP. 

The Jolo Group is situated between the parallels of latitude 5° 46' 
and 6° 14' north, and longitude 120° 50' and 121° IT' east from Green- 
wich. The principal island is Jolo. North of the eastern extremity 
of Jolo is Capual, with an area of 20 square kilometers, and Bitinan. 
To the northeast lies the low level island of Tulayan, which forms with 
the coast of Jolo the port of this name. Farther to the west lie 
Gujanjan and various small isles. North of the anchorage of Jolo lie 

119 



120 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

the island of Tulian and the group composed of the islands of Pan- 
gasman, Marongas, Cabmuan, Bubuan, Hegad, Mimo, Pantocunan, 
and Termabal. The islands of Salude, Termabal, Patian, Lumbian, 

and Pata, with an area of 58 square kilometers, lie to the south. 

THIRD GROl'P. 

TheTapul Group lies between the parallels of latitude 5 C 24' and 
5 t6' north, and longitude L20 10' and L20°4'east from Greenwich. 

It is composed of the islands of Tapul, with an area of 34 square kilo- 
meters and circumference of 23 kilometers; Lugus, a low island cov- 
ered with trees and having an area of 51 square kilometers; the Cobin- 
gaD Islands; Siassi, the most important of the group, covered with 
Forests and with an area of 82 square kilometers; Lapac, very similar 
to Lugus in size and shape; Tara, Lamenusa, Selim, Manubot, and 
Tapaan. 

FOURTH GROUP. 

The Tawi Tawi Group lies between the parallels of latitude 4 47' 
and 5 29' north, and longitude 119° 43' and 123 33' east from Green- 
wich. It includes, besides the island of Tawi Tawi. about forty other-. 
of which fourteen are of some size. Tawi Tawi is situated about 50 
kilometers southeast of the peninsula of LTsang, on the island of 
Borneo. It extends from east-northeast to west-southwest for a dis- 
tance of 55 kilometers, and is about 25 kilometers wide at the broadest 
part near the eastern end. The general appearance of the island is 
much varied, there appearing among masses of clear green a multitude 
of groves with trees close together or widely separated. 

The islands bordering it are but little inhabited, and in inaccessible 
cornel's in them the most incorrigible pirates have their hiding places. 

Among other islands may be mentioned Manicolat, Bubuan, Cinatusan, 
Cacataan, Sigboye, Tambagan, Basbas, Panjumojan, Tabulunga, Dalu- 
man, Tancan, Tandubato, Tarue, Simaluk, Luran, Banaran, Bilatan, 
Simonos. Manue, Manca. Laa, Sanga-Sanga, Buan, Sibutu, Tuul, 
Usada, Cunilan, Pangutarang, Panducan, Laparan, Bilanguan, Bam- 
banan, Mamanuk, and the small group of islands of Tataan, which 
extend for s miles from northeast to southwest almost parallel to and 
at a distance of 1 }> miles from the coast north of Tawi Tawi. 

Among the principal ports of the Archipelago of Jolo may be men- 
tioned Jolo, between points Dinangapit and Belan on the northwest, 
which has a depth of L8 to 20 fathoms, Luban. on the southeast; 
Punungan, on the southwest, south o\' Cabunant on the southern part 
of Lubbac; ttua, on the north of this island; the anchorage o\' Caron- 
dong, and the Bay of Patogo, between Sang and Point Tandican, on 
the southeast of the island. On the northwestern coast is the island 
of KapuaL with which it forms a narrow strait. 

\l MKI.K OF I Ml LBITANTS. 

According to the official guide of the Philippines (ov L897 the popu- 
lationof this archipelago i- 22,630. but considering how little is known 

of niaiiN of the islands, and of the population of innumerable little 
\ illages on thnn. this number is probably only approximate". Accord- 
ing to Ferreiro the number of men in the various groups of islands 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 121 

governed by Datos or Panlirnanes, serviceable for war, is, in Balan- 
guingui, 335; Jolo, 14,415; Tapul, 1,300; Tawi Tawi and Pangutaran, 
1,815, making a total of 17,865. It would therefore seem reasonable 
to suppose that the population is not less than 200,000 in all the archi- 
pelago. According to the general registry of the diocese of Jaro, pub- 
lished in 1895, there are 1,424 Christians. 

Four races having different customs may be distinguished in the 
archipelago: First, the Quinbajanos, or inhabitants of the mountains, 
who are the indigenes; second the Mala}^ and Visa} r an slaves, whose 
descendents have intermarried with the other inhabitants; third, the 
the Samales, an inferior race, though not slaves; and fourth, the true 
Moros, who trace their origin from the Mohammedan invaders, and 
who dominate the other inhabitants. 

LANGUAGES. 

The languages of the inhabitants are Moro-Joloano and Moro- 
Samal, the latter containing many Visayan words. 

TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND PARISHES. 

The points occupied by the Spaniards are Jolo and the military gar- 
risons of Siassi, Bongao (Tawi Tawi), and Tataan. 

Jolo, situated on the island of this name, was the ancient residence 
of the sultans. It has wide, straight, and well-shaded streets, being 
without doubt the cleanest town in the archipelago. The houses are 
all painted or whitewashed on the outside, not one having the nipa 
roof so common in the rest of the archipelago. It has a large hos- 
pital and a good barracks for infantry. There are beaches and gar- 
dens, and a water supply to both private and public buildings. Its 
newly constructed market is of fair size and well arranged for the 
large number of neighboring Moros, who come here with fruits and 
other merchandise. A brick wall surrounds the town, thus making 
it a fortified place. The defenses, Alfonso XII blockhouse and 
Puerta Espagna, and the forts of Torre de la Reina and Princesa de 
Asturias on the neighboring hill, serve for offensive and defensive 
purposes. On account of being a free port it is in direct communi- 
cation with Singapore by means of two English steamers, each one 
of which makes a round trip every twenty-eight days, and it is like- 
wise in communication with Manila by means of the bimonthly mail 
steamers. A stone pier, extending for a considerable distance out, 
facilitates loading and unloading. On this pier is a light-house of the 
sixth class, with a fixed red light. Pertaining to Jolo are the three 
garrisons already mentioned, which are constituted in the form of 
politico-military comandancias. Jolo belongs to the bishopric of Jaro. 
There is a missionary priest there who has charge of the villages of 
Siassi, Tataan, and Bongao. 

IMPORTANT PRODUCTS. 

The flora of this archipelago is similar to that of Mindanao. There 
is an abundance of teak, camuning, molava, narra, mangachapuy, ipil, 
cedro, palohierro, and other equally prized woods, as well as cocoanut 
groves, the cabonegro, buri and nipa palms. Gum mastic, all kinds of 



122 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

resins, and other analogous products are found. Rice, corn, hemp, 
saffron, indigo, sesamo, cotton, the magosteen, the jack fruit, etc., arc 
all produced. Coffee and chocolate grow well on the shaded hillsides, 
and hemp grows without cultivation on the lowlands. Horses, cattle, 
buffaloes, and goats arc abundant. Many species of birds arc found. 
The Jolo people manufacture chisels (patu), long knives with sharp 
edges and points (lagut), ordinary hatchets (capa), and gauges (licut). 
The pearl fisheries are very important in this archipelago, although 
of greater importance on account of their intrinsic value, greater abun- 
dance, and better market are the conch shells (mother-of-pearl), which 
sell well in the markets of Singapore and Manila. 

THE ISLANDS OF PARAGUA, BALABAC, CAGAYAN DE JOLO, AND 
ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

BOUNDARIES AND AREA. 

The island formerly called Palawan, and by the Spaniards called 
Paragua, is situated between the parallels of latitude s 22' and 11 25' 
north and longitude 117° 8' and 119° 40' east from Greenwich. 
(Official Catalogue of the Exposition of Madrid.) 

On the northeast is the island of Mindoro. On the east are the 
islands of Panay, Xegros, and Mindanao. On the southeast i- the 
Jolo archipelago, and on the south the island of Borneo. The China 
Sea separates it on the west from southern [ndo-China. It is con- 
sidered the third largest of all the islands of the Philippine Archipelago. 
In shape it is very long and relatively narrow, having the greatest 
length from northeast to southwest, tJ-45 kilometers, and an average 
width of '22 kilometers. Its total area, including the adjacent islands, 
is L4, 534 square kilometers. 

INHABITANTS. 

According to the official census of 1887 the population of Paragua, 
in (he towns of Danlig, Dumaran, Puerto Princesa. Tatindan. ami 
Taytay, is 5,985. According to Senor Canga Argi'ielles. who was form- 
erly governor of this province, the Christian inhabitants occupying 
the northern part of the island do not exceed L0,000, and the Moham- 
medans, dwelling on both coasts of the southern part, number less than 
6,000. Other authors give a total population of from 28,000 to 30,000. 

The native population can be divided into four well-defined groups: 
First, the Tagbanuas, the most numerous of all. who are distinguished 
on account of t heir sociable and peaceful natures. They live in ham- 
lets along the banks of tin 4 rivers, and somewhat resemble the Moham- 
medan Malays of Mindanao, though not professing tin 1 same religious 
beliefs. They inhabit the pari of the island between Inagahuan and 
Daligon the eastern coast and that between Uluagan and A.pusahuan 
on the western coast. They are about 6,000 in number. Second, the 
Vg:-ii<.>. who can be distinguished on account of their darker com- 
plexion, curl\ hail-, and better physical development. They inhabit 
the mountainous regions lying between Babuyan and Bubacan on the 
eastern coast, and number about L, 500 individuals. Third, the Man- 
guianes, B little known people, who inhabit the territory of the Moros 
and prevent them from trading with the outside World. Physically 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 123 

they are more like the Tagbanuas, but in matters of custom more like 
the Moros. They number about 4,000 individuals. Fourth, the Tan- 
dulanos, who inhabit the eastern coast between the bays of Malampaya 
and Caruray. They are believed to number about 1,500. 

LANGUAGES. 

Spanish is spoken only by the few Spaniards living in the island. 
Moro-Joloano is most generally used in Paragua, though each one of 
the four groups cited has its own special language. 

TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND HAMLETS. 

There are three towns in this comandancia: Puerto Princesa, Taytay, 
and Dumaran. Puerto Princesa, with a population of 3,481, is the 
capital. Its port, called in the English nautical chart Port Royalist, 
is a magnificent natural port, well sheltered and easy of entrance. 
The deep water is about 1^ miles across. On the eastern coast, very 
near to the shore, there is a depth of from 10 to 12 meters. A light- 
house of the sixth class, with a fixed white light, is situated at the 
entrance of the bay. There is a little dockyard for the use of small 
gunboats. There is a penal colony at Puerto Princesa composed of 
convicts of both sexes and of deported individuals. On account of the 
forced labor of this penal colony it has been possible to beautify the 
town and better its sanitary conditions by cutting off the mangrove 
swamps. Rain water is used, as the town lacks a good water supply. 
During the rainy season some people use well water, in spite of the 
fact that it is very poor, while others bring water from the Iguahit 
River just across the bay. There are 24 villages and hamlets belong- 
ing to the towns of Puerto Princesa, Taytay, and Dumaran. 

This island pertains to the diocese of Jaro. The following are clas- 
sified as active missions: Puerto Princesa, with 3,121 parishoners; 
Tinitian, with 1,197; Dumaran, with 2,128; Taytay, with 1,733; 
Inignan, with 279, and Baenit, with 1,257. 

PORTS, MOUNTAINS, AND RIVERS. 

On account of its geographical position, Paragua is one of the most 
important islands of the Philippine Archipelago. It is not less impor- 
tant from a commercial view point, as it forms with the island of 
Balabac the strait of the same name, through which at certain times of 
the year sailing ships are compelled to pass. The island has the 
following ports: Puerto Princesa and Bininsulian, on the eastern coast; 
Ulugan, on the bay of the same name; and the Bay of Malinpaya, 
which, according to some authorities, has no rival in the world. 

A great mountain chain extending from northeast to southwest 
divides the island of Paragua into two halves. Its terminal peaks are 
Mount Montalingahan, with an elevation of 2,080 meters, on the south, 
and Mount Victoria, with an elevation of 1,372 meters, on the north. 
Among the mountain ranges which arise from the principal one are 
the Malanit Range, which, beginning near Tagbayug, extends to the 
south; the Pulote Range, which, arising about the middle of the pre- 
vious range, extends perpendicularly to it for a distance of 20 miles to 
the south, after which it inclines to the west, and the Bulanjao Range, 



124 REPORT OP THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION 

which arises near Coral Bay and extends to the northeast a distance of 
more than }o kilometers. On account of the peculiar shape of the 
island the rivers are all short, but are of much importance, as they 
furnish ways of communication between the two coasts. The Lguahit 
River, which probably has its source on the slopes of the Aldea Range, 
passes through the village of the same name and empties into the nay. 
The Cururay, having its source on the eastern side of the central 
mountains, empties into the China Sea near the Bay of Magdanan. 
The Campan River empties into the bay of the same name, and the 
Pirata River into the Bay of San Antonio. 

MOST IMPORTANT PRODUCTS. 

All of the mountain sides are covered with abundant vegetation, 
forming extensive forests, which contain large numbers of excellent 
building woods. Among these maybe mentioned narra, calandas 'a 
species of cedar), ipil (which attains great size), camagon, molave, 
banaba, alopai, amuguis, arsonan, apiay (unknown in Luzon), cisbi, 
mansalanguin, and many others. The Fragosa-peregrina, known to 
the natives under the name of uring, from which gum mastic is 
obtained, was, until a short time ago, unknown in the Philippines. 
The forest wealth of this island is very great, and many specieti of 
trees not found in the rest of the archipelago grow here. There arc 
many mangrove swamps, of which the natives utilize the three princi- 
pal species — the bacanan, the tangal, and the langhoray. The produc- 
tion of rattan on this island is truly astonishing, an uninterrupted 
trade in this article being carried on between Puerto Princesa and 
Manila. The nipa palm, so useful and necessary to the natives, com- 
pletely covers the banks of the rivers and estuaries. The cocoanut 
palm grows well. An abundance of gum mastic, copal, and other 
resins exist. Excellent tobacco, rice, and all kinds of fruits and 
vegetables can be grown. The island of Paragua is second to none 
in the wealth of its vegetable kingdom. The fine pasture lands of 
the island sustain large numbers of cattle, buffaloes, goats, and hogs. 
The famous nests made by the little swift (called salangana) are found 
in abundance in the deep eaves around the coast. These nests are so 
highly prized by the Chinese thai they have at times paid as much as 
84,000 a picul for them; that is to say. twice their weight in silver. 

As this island has not been well explored, its mineral wealth is not 
known. Lead and antimony are found in the form o\' pyrites, and 
there are indications of iron and copper. The hard, even slate shows 
some indications of iron and sulphur. Granite is found in abundance, 
hut i.s soft and porous. Coral rock, which the natives utilize in the 
manufacture of Lime, is found in abundance. 



Till' ISLAND OF BALABAO. 
This island, situated south of Paragua, is bounded on the east by the 

Jolo Sea and on the west by the China Sea. On the south there is a 
strait ha\ ing the same name a*> this island, which separates it from the 
islands of Bangueyand Balanbagan, bordering Borneo. It is 36 miles 
in Length, 8 or 1<> in breadth, and has an area o\' 370 square kilometers. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 125 

NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. 

According to the official census of 1887 there are 2,110 inhabitants, 
of whom but 408 are Christians. According to the general registry 
of the Recoleto Friars for 1897 the natives are Moros, living in the 
villages of Dalanan, Pasig, Catagupan, Sabos, Agutayan, Tucanigalo, 
Pancan, Cabulaigan, Carandurin, and Singalo. 

Language. — The ordinary language in this island is Moro-Joloano. 

NUMBER OF TOWNS, VILLAGES, AND PARISHES. 

Balabac is the only town. It has an excellent port during the south- 
west monsoon. There is one other port, at Calandaran. At the entrance 
of the port of Balabac there is a light-house of the sixth class, show- 
ing a fixed white light. At Point Melville, at the southern extremity 
of the island, there is a light-house of the first class. The only parish 
in the island is that of Balabac. 

PRODUCTS. 

As in the neighboring island of Palawan, there are many excellent 
tropical woods, gums, resins, dyestuffs, fibers, and medicinal plants, 
wax, honey, etc. 

The peculiar little mouse deer called pelandoc, which is unknown in 
the rest of the archipelago, is found here. 

There is an abundant deposit of coal of excellent quality 11.14 kilo- 
meters from the town. It is said that in the territory occupied by 
the Moros there is a deposit of native mercury. 

CAGAYAN DE JOLO. 

This, the largest island of the Balanguingui group, which formerly 
was a part of the Jolo Archipelago, was a short time ago attached to 
the comandancia of Balabac. It is situated 45 leagues to the north- 
west of Tawi Tawi, has a perimeter of 41 kilometers and an area of 
68 square kilometers. It has two peculiar lakes — one of fresh water 
and the other of salt water. 

ISLANDS ADJACENT TO PARAGUA AND BALABAC. 
WEST COAST OF PARAGUA. 



This low-lying island, covered with scrub, is situated 6 miles north 
of Cape Buliluyan, about a mile from the shore. 

BALANSUNGAIN. 

These islands are situated southwest of the Bay of Marasi and in 
the same parallel as Puerta Princesa. They are surrounded by little 
islands, reefs, and rocks. 

MALAPACUN. 

This island is situated 3 miles west and one-fourth of a mile south- 
west of Point Hununock, and li miles from the coast of Paragua. It 
is of medium height and covered with forests. 



126 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



MA.MU.AR. IIIKKI'.A. AND N'ACODA. 



The coast, 2^ miles from Point Hununock, forms a little hay, in 
which are the islands of Manglar and Hierba. They are low and of 
little area. The most northern of these has to the northeast of it a 
little island called Maeoda, which terminates in a little conical cape. 
Near this cape rises the little island of Sepulero. 



LA GALLINA AND LOS P0LLO8. 



These names are given to several scattered islands lying in front of 
the ba}^, just north of Mount Hersechel. 

TRES PICOS. 

This island, also called Camungyan, lies 1] miles north-northeast of 
the cape, on the northwestern extremity of Paragua. 

KITA. 

An island west of the Bay of Ulugan. 

CAANIPA. 

A little island situated at the entrance of the Bay of Cruz de Mayo. 



An island situated :->.j miles northeast of Caanipa. It is very irregu- 
lar in outline, 5 miles long from east to west and ;U miles wide from 
north-northeast to south-southwest. 

There are innumerable small islands found between the Bay of Cruz 
de Mayo and the northern point of Paragua. 

TULURAN. 

This island is situated at the entrance of the port of Malambaya. 

CONO. 

An island in front of the 1 Bay of Bolalo. 

M \I.\IM\ A. 

Sit tinted just inside of tin 1 Strait of Bloqueo. 

T \IM\T \V 

This island has the most vegetation on it of any of the Calizas Esca- 
brosas group. 

M \>1M OC 

This island Is situated east of Tapintan, 

.u win von. 

This island Liesjusl northeast o( Masinloc 




P c VOL 3 — ol- 



io 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 127 

JUABUYATAN. 

This island forms a group with several others of little importance 
just at the entrance of the Ba} T of Bacnit. 

LAGEN. 

This island is situated on the eastern coast ofthe Ba} T of Bacnit. 

COMOCUTUAN. 

On the western coast of the same bay. 

CADLAO. 

Situated northwest of the peninsula of Bacnit. 

CANAYAN AND LA CAVEKNA. 

These islands are north of Cadlao. 

HORMIGA. 

This island is situated east of the channel between Canayan and 
Cadlao. 

Near the northern end of Paragua are the islands of Jemelos, Dia- 
pila, Calitan, and Cabuli. 

EAST COAST OF PARAGUA. 

BO WEN. 

A little island near the northern point of Bugsuc. 

UKZULA. 

A little island east of Bo wen. 

AKKECIFE. 

An island northwest of Urzula. 

BAHIA DE LAS ISLAS (ISLAND BAY) . 

Called thus on account of the multitude of islands which border it 
on the east. 

RASA OR KATAQUIN, 

An island situated east-northeast of Point Divaque. 

MALANAO. 

This island, very similar to Rasa and of the same size, lies south- 
east of the bay of A Idea. 

CANA. 

A little island in front of the larger bay north of Puerta Princesa, 



128 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

mi; AJB \ \M) i i: \.-i:i:. 

These islands, togel her with a Large number of small islands in rocks, 
he in front of Honda liny, north ol the hay of Puerta Plincesa. 

\ KIIDKS. 

A group of islands south of Point Flecha is called Verdes. 

DUMARAN. 

This is the Largest of all the islands adjacent to Paragua. It is 43 
miles in circumference, and its mountains rise to a height of L82 
meters above sea level. It is quite irregular in form, well peopled, 
and has a good deal of arable land; goats and hogs are abundant, and 
all kinds of Philippine fruits are produced. 

From Dumaran to the northern point of Paragua there is a very 
large number of islands and of isles. Among these may he mentioned 
Mayabacon, Pales, Dala, Ganem, Carandaga, Icadambamcan, or Tay- 
tay, famous for its ba}^; Silongas, Malabuctin, Bagamdagan, Busuml- 
bulan, Bunul, and many others. 

ISLANDS ADJACENT TO BALABAC. 

In the strait north of Balabac are the following islands: Secam. at 
the western entrance of the strait; Bancalan, 5 miles northeast of 
Secam; Matangul, ?> miles southeast of Bancalan: Pandanan. :-U miles 
northeast of Bancalan. It is 6i miles in length from northeast to 
southwest and 2£ miles wide. 



This, the largest of all the islands about Balabac, is situated east of 

the island of Pandanan. 



PAPER NO. II. 



OROGRAPHY 



OR 



MOUNTAINS AND MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS. 



129 



INTRODUCTION. 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL DATA WITH RESPECT TO THE PARTICULAR 
ISLANDS OF THE PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO. 

Situated at the east of the Asiatic Continent there arises from the 
sea a large group of islands known by the name of the Philippine 
Archipelago, a name which was given to them by Ruiz Lopez de Vil- 
lalobos, who was one of the first discoverers, and who gave the name 
in memory of the Prince of Asturias, afterwards King Philip of Spain. 

These islands form one of the richest groups of islands in the Far 
East, and are situated between the meridians 116° 40' and 126° 34' of 
longitude east of Greenwich and between the parallels of north lati- 
tude 4° 40' and 21° 3', counting from the extreme southern point of 
the small island of Sarangani (to the south of Mindanao) to the most 
northerly point of the island Batanes. The distance from this south- 
ern point to the northern is 320 leagues, whereas that from east to 
west is 180. This archipelago is bounded on the north and west by 
the China Sea, on the south by the Sea of Celebes, and on the east 
by the Pacific Ocean. (See maps Nos. 1 and 2 of the Atlas of the 
Philippines.) 

Omitting those islands of small area, we shall devote our attention 
principally to the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Marinduque, Polillo, 
Tablas, Romblon, Burias, Masbate, Ticao, Catanduanes, Batanes, 
Paragua, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Samar, Leyte, Bohol, and Mindanao. 

In another paper — that on chorography — the geographical conditions 
of these several islands are treated. 

The following is a table setting forth the geographical situation, 
together with the superficial area in kilometers of each of the islands, 
given in the order of their size: 



Names of islands. 



Extreme lati- 
tudes north. 



Extreme longi- 
tudes east of 
Greenwich. 



Superficial 
area. 



Maps in 
Atlas of the 
Philippines. 



Luzon 

Mindanao... 

Paragua 

Samar 

Panay 

Mindoro (2). 

Leyte 

Negros 

Cebu 

Masbate 

Bohol 

Catanduanes 

Polillo 

Marinduque 

Tablas 

Burias 

Ticao 



12. 5 to 18. 7 
5. 6 9. 8 



8.3 
10.9 
10.4 
12.2 
10.0 

9.1 

9.4 
11.7 

9.6 
13.5 
14.7 
13.2 
12.1 
12.7 
12.3 



11.5 
12.7 
11.9 
13.5 
11.6 
11.0 
11.3 
12.6 
10.2 
14.1 
15.1 
13.6 
12.7 
13.2 
12.7 



119. 7 to 124. 2 



121.9 
116.1 
124.3 
121.8 
120.3 
124.3 
122.4 
123.3 
123.1 
123.7 
124.0 
121.8 
121.8 
121.9 
122.9 
123.6 



126.6 
119.7 
125.8 
123.2 
121.5 
125.3 
123.6 
124.1 
124.0 
124.6 
124.4 
122.2 
122.2 
122.1 
123.4 
123.8 



Kilometers. 

106, 145 

86, 140 

14, 584 

12, 956 

12,246 

10, 167 

9,267 

8,982 

5,714 

3,418 

3,067 

1,668 

779 

773 

724 

720 

373 



Number. 
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 
26, 27, 28 
24,25 
18 
20 
15 
19 
21 
22 
17 
23 
14 
12 
10 
16 
11 
17 



131 



132 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Add to the superficial area, as given in the preceding table, the area 
of the many small islands of the archipelago, there results a total area 
of some i".»<>.4:;7 square kilometers, amounting to about two-thirds of 
t j 1( . extenl of area <d' the peninsula of Spain. The total number of 
the islands exceeds 1,400. 



Plate I. 




VOL CAN TAAL ( 8ATANGA5. LUZON J 



NOTABLE MOUNTAINS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 




o a 

Ph ft 



35 

^ P! 

o -a 

t> P! 



MOUNTAINS AND MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS. 



CHAPTER T. 

PRINCIPAL MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS. 

THE SYSTEM OF MOUNTAIN RANGES IN THE ISLAND OF LUZON. 

NUCLEUS OF THE SYSTEM. 

The mountain system of Luzon, the most important island of the 
whole Philippine archipelago, is composed principally of three large 
ranges, whose springs form the sources of four full rivers, which, 
flowing through the island in various directions, irrigate it so richly 
and so fertilize it with their abundant waters th'at there is scarcely a 
province which does not produce in abundance the fruits natural to it. 
The nucleus of this mountain system is called Caraballo Sur, whose 
highest peak (1,400 meters) is situated at latitude 16° 9' north, longi- 
tude 121° •!' east from Greenwich. 

Caraballos Occldentales. — The fir.st of these ridges, called Caraballos 
Occidentals, runs approximately north and is divided into two parts, 
that of the central range, which runs three-fourths of its length before 
it separates between the provinces of Abra, Ilocos Norte, and Caga- 
yan, and that of the north range, which runs from the division men- 
tioned to the most northern part of Luzon, called Point Pata. Its 
total length is about 50 leagues. It separates the provinces of Pan- 
gasinan, Union, Abra, and the district of Benguet from those of Nueva 
Viscaya, Isabela, and Cagayan. Departing from Cabalisian, near 
Caraballos Sur toward the north, the district of Benguet, in which 
rise the ridges of Pinos and Bay abas, is left to the west of the prin- 
cipal range. 

In one range of hills of little importance there rise the rivers Abra 
and Agno Grande, which, taking opposite directions, flow, the former 
toward the north, the latter toward the south. 

The mountains Biumaca, Tapan, Cabuman, Tonglon (2,261 meters), 
Lugsen, and the peak of Bayabas (1,520 meters) are the most important 
of the heights between Union and Benguet. To the north of Cara- 
ballos Sur and at a distance equal to one-half that from this mountain 
to the Gulf of Casiguran is found Mount Data (2,500 meters), one of 
the most conspicuous of the whole region. Its branches run in the 
general direction of north and south. Among them rises the range 
of mountains Sabagan, which extends toward the district of Bontoc 
to the east, and also the chain called Polis, the highest region of all 
that country. From the ridge of Polis, giving place to the valley of 
Sapan, there arise in turn other branches, which, with a northeastern 
trend, extend to Bontoc and Cagayan, and unite with the second prin- 
cipal range. In this range are the sources of several tributaries to 

133 



\:\\ REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

the river <>l* the same name. At the western boundary of the district 
of Lepanto, and forming the division between it and the province of 
I locos Sur, there extend the ranges of Tila and Malaya, which run 
southeast, entering the district of Benguet, where they join a spur of 
the Data. The boundary between the provinces of Abra and [locos 
Sur consists of a range which runs parallel to the principal one from 
south t<> north, thus holding the province of Abra between two large 
ranges. On account of the roughness and wildness of these two ranges 
numerous tribes of [gorrotes find safe shelter in them. From the 
Caraballos Norte, which forms the extreme northern point of the great 
range, there starts toward the west a branch called the Caraballo Onico. 
From these last extend two ranges of mountains, which, running 
parallel toward the south, enter the province of Ilocos Sur. and give 
to it a varied scenery. 

Sierra Madre. —The important range called Sierra Madre begins at 
the Caraballos de Baler, situated southeast from the Caraballos Sur. 
It extends in the general direction of northeast, and altogether forms 
a continuous chain of mountains which extend from the Caraballos 
de Baler to the cape Engano, in the northern point of the island. 
crossing the district of Principe and the provinces of l>abela and 
Cagayan. Its length is somewhat greater than that of the Caraballos 
( Vcidentales. The length of this range, the largest of the archipelago, 
is not known, nor has it been possible to determine the height of its 
principal mountains. One smaller branch runs to the bay of Palanan. 
the principal one continuing parallel to the coast and very near it. 

From the Caraballos Sur and from the countries between the Cara- 
ballos Occidentales and the Sierra Madre springs another branch 
called Mamparan, which, running toward the north, extends to the 
province of Nueva Viscaya. The branches of this mountain range 
extend to the right from the point of deviation from the two main 
ranges, while farther south several branches of the Caraballos de Baler 
extend into the province of Xueva Feija. 

Range of the east and southeast. — The third important range, 
beginning at the Caraballos Sur. presents less height than the two 
others; also its direction is more irregular, and its length twice that 
of the Caraballos Occidentales. It extends from the Caraballos de 
Baler to the Strait of San Bernardino. Its trend from its point of 
separation to the boundary of the provinces of Laguna and Tayabas i- 
north and south. 

From Banahao the range turns to the southeast, which direction it 
maintains invariably until near Guinayangan, in the province o\' Taya- 
bas, where it divides into two spurs, which extend, respectively, one 
more toward the south into the above-mentioned province to Point 
Bondog, where it ends, and the other toward the northeast, only to 
turn later again to the east in the end o\' Calagua, cross t ho proi ince 
of Camarines Norte, 1 turn again toward the southeast, enter tin 4 prov- 
inces of Camarines Sur and AJbay, until it ends in the spurs of the 
volcano Bulusan facing the Strait of San Bernardino. 

Among the branches of this great range there merit special atten- 
tion, besides the division of Tayabas, which, separating from the Cara- 

1 Although for several years tlu> provinces of Oamarinee Norn- ami Camarines Sur 
have constituted - » 1 1 1 \ one pro> Lnce, called Ajnbos (both I Oamarinee, ^till in <U'scrii>- 
ingthe mountain ranges we adhere, for greater clearness, to the division into two 
parts. 



REPO&T OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 135 

ballos de Baler, takes the direction of northeast until it ends in the 
point Encento, on the south side of the bay of Baler, those which 
extend through the province of Bulacan and the district of Morong, 
and those of Colasi and Bacaray, in the province of Camarines Norte. 

The most important mountains. — The most important mountains of 
the system of the Caraballos, aside from the Caraballos Sur, are the 
following: 

In the range of the northwest, or Caraballos Occidentales, the peaks 
of Sagsig Cabalisian, Salacsa, Dalandem, Mingolit, and Saluan, between 
the provinces of Nueva Viscaya, Nueva Ecija, Pangasinan, and the dis- 
trict of Benguet; those of Data (2,500 meters), Tila (1,355 meters), 
Mitra (1,737 meters), and Tantaguan (1,914 meters), in the district of 
Lepanto; those of Caburtanga, Gabaon, Dilaso, Danao, Dayos, Narapi- 
jan, and the craggy Andang, in the province of Ilocos Norte; those 
of Posdey (1,430 meters), Mamagued, Mabulusa, Liputen, Abra, 
Colango, Bumuragan, Balatinan, Molinga, Pico, and Calos, within the 
limits of Abra; those of Balago (1,606 meters), Cabatingan, Diablo, 
Maguinalem, Tibangran, and Burnay (1,913 meters), within the prov- 
inces of Abra and Ilocos Su, ; and in the ridges of Ilocos Norte, from 
the extreme south to Point Pata on the northern coast, those of Agau- 
mala (1,410 meters), Pan de Azucar (762 meters), Bimungan (1,183 
meters), and that of Quebrada (927 meters), with the line of heights 
which form the Caraballos Norte. 

The elevation of the peaks of the Sierra Madre is estimated as fol- 
lows: The Dos Cuernos (1,204 meters), the Morses (1,283 meters), the 
volcano Cana (1,195 meters), and several others whose elevation, like 
that of others which we have mentioned, it has not yet been possible 
to determine. 

Following the range of the east and of the southeast are the Cara- 
ballos de Baler and Subani, in the province of Nueva Ecija; Silas, 
Angat, Pahalang, Orion, and Tayabasan, in that of Bulacan; Simuten, 
Camunay, and Du}^o, in the district of Morong; Malagion, Malang, 
Maquiling (1,133 meters),, and San Cristobal, in Laguna, until we 
reach the Banahaa. And from the Banahaa to the district of San Ber- 
nardino those of Masalacay and Bondog, in the province of Tayabas; 
those of Colasi, Calungun, Bayabas, Sabro (1,552 meters), Baao, 
Puliamey, Paratucan, and Caramuan, in those of the two Camarines; 
and in that of Albay those of Buhi or Malinao, Masaraga (1,354 meters), 
May on or volcano of Albay (2,522 meters), Pocdol, Calangalan, and 
of the volcano Bulusan. 

THE SYSTEM OF THE ISLAND OF MINDORO. 

Head of the system. — Taking as the point of origin the mountain 
Halcon (2,700 meters), situated in the northern part of the island at 
an equal distance from the eastern and western coasts, the system is 
divided into three large ranges, which run, one in the direction from 
northwest to southeast and the other two from the north to the south. 

The northern range is nearly perpendicular to the other two. The 
latter ranges, on account of being parallel not only to the coast but 
also to each other, make room for a large central plane, which extends 
between them, running north and south. This interior portion of the 
island is very little known as yet, on account of the absolute lack of 
communication across the mountains between the fishing villages on 
the opposite coasts. 



136 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

The northern range. — The northern range, which, as has already 
been stated, runs northwest and southeast, is probably the most impor- 
tant of the whole system. From Mount Halcon to the hill Calavite, 
situated at a very short distance from the point of the same name, it 
changes its direction many times and numerous spurs extend not only 
to the north toward the coast but also toward the interior of the island. 
There are many peaks. Among the highest are Calavite, Abra de 
Hog, and those of Bacoo. In the neighborhood of the town of Nan j an 
there is a large spur or chain of mountains, which at first follows the 
direction of the principal range, but later turns toward the south and 
joins the range of the eastern coast. 

The eastern range. — From the spur of Nanjan, above mentioned, 
extends another range, running to the west from a lake called also 
Nan jan. It turns to the southeast to the series of mountains which 
run between the towns of Nan jan and Pola. It changes its direction to 
the south and forms the hills of Bamtat, Bahaynatubig, and Natabang, 
between the towns of Pola and Socol; those of Tangot, Bongabon, and 
Batangan, between Socol and Tiding; and those of Mabajo, Agun, and 
Taitican, between Mamalay and Bulalacao, and finally, in the southern 
part of the island, joins the western range. 

The western range. — The Abra de Hog, near the Halcon, is the point 
at which rises the chain of mountains running parallel to the western 
coast. With numerous and important branches extending to the west, 
until they are lost in the sea, it encounters in its course the town of 
Sablayan, in whose vicinity it is interrupted, to reappear in the neigh- 
borhood of Trurum and continue in the same direction, from north to 
south, until it ends in the point Rumban, to the northeast of Point 
Bugsanga, one of those which forms the bay of Mangarin. 

THE SYSTEMS OF NEGROS AND PANAY IN THE VISAYAN ISLANDS. 

The mowntain system of Negros. — The frame of the mountain system 
of the island of Negros is formed by a large range, which crosses the 
island from the northwest to the southwest, and by various spurs, 
separating from it and running in opposite directions, ending on both 
eastern and western coasts of the island. The situation of this range 
causes the general division by which the island is divided into eastern 
and western Negros, the former being the part on the east of the 
range toward Cebu, and the latter all that region on the west toward 
Panay. Of the branches of this central range there merit special 
all cut ion those of eastern Negros, which extend toward the east and 
end, respectively, in the points of San Jose and Manjuyoc, and the one 
running toward the west, which ends in the point Sojoton. The peaks 
most notable on account of their height are Solitario, facing Silav; 
the volcano Canlaon, or Malaspina, whose height is more than 1,200 
meters, situated at about the middle point of the range; Tipasi, toward 
the south, and the ridge of Dumaguete, in the southeastern extremity 
of the island. 

l'h< j>riiic!jKil rung, of Panay. — It can be said that there is only one 
mountain range in the island of Panay. This range runs north and 
south from the little peninsula of Buranga, in the extreme northwest 
of the island, to the point Siaran in the southwest, and separates the 
district of Antique from those of Capiz and Iloilo. The highest 
point of the range is undoubtedly the mountain Madia-as, which 
reaches the altitude iA' 2,180 meters. It is situated east-southeast 



REPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 137 

from the town of Colasi, in latitude 11° 21' north and longitude 122° 
10' east from Greenwich. From the Madia-as to the point of Pucio, 
in the peninsula of Buruanga, this chain runs with many variations in 
direction and altitude. At first its direction is north until it reaches 
latitude 11° 15' north, after which it runs east and west until it ends 
in Point Pucio. During its course to the west it serves as the 
boundary between the provinces of Capiz and Antique. In the north 
this range becomes merely a large number of low alkali hills, and ends 
in the points Sabongcogon, Naisog, and Pucio. Like all hills of this 
formation, the} T are very irregular. 

From the mountain Madia-as the range runs toward the south, tak- 
ing the general direction south-southeast until it reaches the mountain 
Llorente, in latitude 10° 59' north and longitude 122° 19' east, from 
which point it takes the direction south-southwest to the mountain 
Nagsucubang, situated in the extreme southwest of the island, where 
it ends. It reappears as four spurs running to the points Sagdam, 
Ani-ui-y, Cadugdula, and Naisog. This part of the range also descends, 
but not so abruptly as the northern part. In this whole chain of moun- 
tains it may be observed that the western sides are much more craggy 
than those of the east, especially so in that part in which are situated 
its highest peaks. Finally from the Madia-as to the mountain Balo}^, 
in latitude 11° 9' north, it marks the boundary between the provinces 
of Capiz and Antique, and from the Baloy to Point Naisog it sepa- 
rates that of Antique from that of Iloilo. 

Character of its brandies. — Various are the branches which run off 
from the range of Panay. There are two principal ones: One, start- 
ing from the mountain Madia-as, extends through Antique, in the 
direction southwest, to the town of Tibiao on the western coast. The 
other starts from Baloy and crosses the whole island in the direction, 
first from west to east, and later from southwest to northeast, to the 
mountains Lating and Alapasco, which are the last spurs of this branch, 
in the extreme northeast of the island. It serves along its entire length 
as the boundary of the provinces of Capiz and Iloilo. The others are, 
in general, of slight elevation and serve only to determine the source 
of the tributaries which go to form the three principal rivers of the 
island, Aclan, Jalauz, and Panay. 

In the north, between Batan and Capiz, there is also a group of sev- 
eral mountains in the form of a semicircle, opening toward the north 
and forming the shore of the Gulf of Sapian. Altogether they form 
a watershed for the springs of the rivers Aclan and Panay. 

The most notable peaks. — We have alread}^ indicated that the most 
notable peak of the principal range is the Madia-as (2,180 meters). 
Besides that mountain there deserve special mention among those sit- 
uated to the north of the Madia-as, Usigan (1,290 meters), Balabac 
(1,300 meters), Agotay (1,130 meters), and the mountains Toctocon 
(1,100 meters). Among those situated to the south there appear the 
Nangtud (2,050 meters), the Baloy (1,730 meters), the Tuno (1,110 
meters), the Igbanig (1,303 meters), the Llorente (1,310 meters), the 
Tiguran (1,170 meters), the Congcong (1,070 meters), and the Ticbayat 
(1,010 meters). 

In the branches of this range there rise the following mountains: 
Lacaon, Nansang, Nacuran, Lating and Alapasco. 1 

x See " Description Fisica, Gologica y Minera en Bosquejo de la Islade Panay," by 
D. Enrique Abella y Casariego. 

p c— vol 3—01 16 



138 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

THE SYSTEM OF MINDANAO. 

Division of the system into ranges. — The mountain system of Min- 
danao, on account of the great changes which that island has experi- 
enced through the eruption of volcanoes and the destructive action of 
earthquakes, is not easily defined. The mountains Apo and Matutum 
constitute, among others, the nucleus from which rise two of its prin- 
cipal ranges. Apart from the rest of the system, which is not clearly 
defined, there can be distinguished four ranges called, on account 
of the position which they occupy with relation to the island, eastern, 
central-eastern, central-western, and western. Altogether they give 
rise to rich rivers, which, flowing through the island in all directions, 
fertilize it with the tribute of their waters. 

Eastern range.— The first of the ranges indicated and the one best 
defined of all is that running from Lurigao, in the most northern part 
of the island, to the cape San Agustin, in its southern extremky. 
This range runs from its origin at no great distance from the coast in 
the direction south-southeast, until it meets the mountain Agtunganon. 
It takes later a trend to the south, always in a direction parallel to the 
coast, to the mountains of Manuligao. In these mountains it under- 
goes another change to the direction south-southeast and forms on one 
side the spurs of Mandadagsa, and on the other those of Tagdalit, 
Campalili, and Tapas, containing the sources of the rivers Guinonoan 
and Buguan. It ends at the mountains of Magsuba}^ Tagopo, and 
Capungunan, where rises the river Agusan. It suddenly turns from 
here to the south and, forming the mountains of Mayo, Amiguitan, and 
Sigabo}^, ends in the promontory of San Agustin, after having run, 
throughout its whole length, more than 80 leagues. 

Padre Pablo Pastello, from whom we have taken the preceding 
data about the eastern range, says in his explanatory note of the map 
of the mountains of Mindanao, published May 20, 1887, the following: 

The eastern range gives rise to the rivers of the eastern coast of the island, to those 
flowing to the right of Agusan, and the little rivers of Quinquin, Matiao, and Lumlug, 
which deposit their waters in the eastern side of the Gulf of Darao. Their sources 
are found in the opposite sides of the mountains, which give rise to the same Agusan. 
There are, besides this range, branches whose many spurs extend toward both 
sides, sending their waters to the streams that empty into the Pacific, and to those 
running into the Agusan from its right bank. 

The central eastern range. — The central eastern range runs from the 
point Dinata, facing the bay of San Butuan and the mountain of Gin- 
goog, on the west of the mouth of the river Agusan on the northern 
coast. With a direction almost entirely parallel to the eastern range, 
it runs to the south-southwest and separates the watershed on the left 
of the Agusan from that on the right of the Tagoloan, and turns to- 
ward the south until it meets Mount Apo, after having run two-thirds 
of its course, in about latitude 7° north, and at the height of Davao, not 
very distant from the lake Liguasan. At the Apo it divides into two 
branches, the principal one running to the southeast and ending in the 
southern extremity of the island, in point Sarangani; the other turns 
gradually to the west and ends in the western part of the bay, called 
also Sarangani. The general direction of this range is, as we have indi- 
cated, parallel to the eastern range, although it undergoes several 
depressions and elevations. Among the most important elevations is 
the volcano Apo, whose height, more than 3,o00 meters, is the greatest 



EEPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 139 

of the whole archipelago. It is also the watershed of the Pulangui 
or Rio Grande and of the Agusan, following for the greater part of its 
course very near the former. 

The two eastern ranges and central eastern are united in the form 
of an angle, which, separating from the mountains that give rise on 
one side to the Agusan and on the other to the Libaganon, has for its 
highest point the peaks of Oloagusan. The angle formed by these two 
ranges forms a perfectly marked system of waters. That which rises 
in the eastern chain runs into the river Hi jo and the tributaries on the 
left of the Agusan and of the Salug, and that which proceeds from the 
central eastern to the tributaries on the right of the Salug on one side, 
and on the other to those on the left of the Agusan, especially to the 
Manat and to the Baobo. 

Finally, from the central eastern range there extends a very impor- 
tant branch, considered by some a distinct range. It runs from the 
Matutum, facing the Bay of Sarangani, and taking the direction gen- 
erally from east to west, afterwards turns from the southeast to the 
northwest, continues parallel to the southern coast of the island to 
Cotabato, forming part of the right water shed of the Pulangui and 
those of the rivers which empty directly into the sea between the bay 
Illana and the Gulf of Sarangani. 

The central western range.— The third, which ought to be called a 
group rather than a range of mountains, is exceedingly difficult to 
describe. In the first place, its origin is not easily determined. Some 
suppose it to come from the volcano Apo, but that supposition, 
although it at first sight seems acceptable, is not correct. The great 
difficulty is that it encounters the Pulangui, or Rio Grande, which 
with its swift current opposes a serious obstacle to the continuance of 
the range. Let its origin be whatever it may, it is certainly not far from 
the Apo, and on the side opposite the Pulangui it becomes a range of 
not insignificent mountains, which, dividing and subdividing into very 
many branches, give rise to numerous tributaries that on the western 
slope go to enlarge with their waters the broad current of that great 
river. 

Three chains of this range of mountains run to the northwest. The 
nearest to the central eastern range is that which ends on the north 
side of the bay of Macajalar, in the point Lipaca. Its most notable 
mountains are the Balatocan, facing the Balingasac, Sobrac, Numanlog, 
and Quimanquil. The second, whose direction inclines more to the 
west than the former and which is not so high, ends in Cagayan de 
Misamis, its principal mountains being the Quitanglag and the Musuan. 
The last and most important of the former runs from the southwest to 
the northwest, with a still more open angle than the preceding ones of 
the central eastern range, passing on the north of Lake Lanao and 
ending to the northwest of the bay Macajalar, in point Salanang. 

The fourth range of the same series runs from the north of Lake 
Liguasan, not far from the three which we have just described in Piquit, 
and with direction west-northwest. It passes to the south of the Lake 
Lanao and ends in the bay of Panguil, with branches to the bay Illana. 

Western range. — The fourth range of Mindanao, better defined than 
those preceding, takes its origin in the spurs of the mountain Malin- 
dang in the comandancia p. m. of Dapitan. It runs, with two short 
ranges, to the northwest and northeast. From the mountain Malin- 
dang this range extends to the south, turns toward the west, and runs 



140 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

parallel to the coast to the shore of the Gulf of Sindangan to the 
mountain Sibuyan. There it returns to its first direction of north and 
south, runs to the central part of the peninsula, where it extends from 
the Gulf of Libuguey to the China Sea, ending in the place where was 
the ancient fort of the Caldera, near Ayala in Zamboanga. 

The higher mountains. — The mountains which reach the greatest 
height in Mindanao are divided according to their ranges in the fol- 
lowing order: 

In the eastern range there are the Dinata, Atunganan, Bayombong, 
Bungadon, Lucatan, Tagdilit, Campalili, Tapao, Tagopo, Capungunan, 
and Magsuibay; in the central-eastern, besides Apo (3,300 meters), are 
those of Sinalayao, Lagsadon, Panambuyan, Bululanan, and Mat u turn; 
in the central- western, following the order of its four branches, are 
the Balatocan, the Sobrac, the Numanlog, and the Quimanquil; the 
Quitanglag, and the Musuan; those of Panisian, Colcol, Calatungan, 
and Duandan, and those of Tiniptiban, Palanabahay, Pinangayonan, 
Sugut, Picos de Ganasi, Guran, Dagambal, Caromata, and Masibay; 
and in the western those of Silingan, Tres Reyes, and Malindang (2,609 
meters). 



CHAPTER II. 
MOUNTAIN RANGES OF THE SECOND AND THIRD ORDER. 

LUZON AND THE ADJACENT ISLANDS. 
THE ZAMBALES RANGE. 

Next in importance to the Caraballos system, already described, 
is the Zambales range, in the western part of the island of Luzon. 
Starting at Cape Bolinao, in latitude 16° 23' north and longitude 119° 
40' east from Greenwich, the range runs north and south close to 
and parallel with the western coast. It serves as the boundary between 
Zambales and Pangasinan, then as the boundary between Zambales 
and Tarlac, and finally divides Pampanga and Zambales. Then it 
enters the province of Bataan, running its entire length from north 
to south, and disappears in front of the island of Corregidor at the 
entrance of the Bay of Manila. It is divided into three principal 
ranges, that of Zambales proper in the north, that of Cabusilan in the 
central part, and that of Mariveles in the province of Bataan, in the 
south. Among other peaks of some elevation are Iba, Masiloc, Lanad, 
Sual, and Calvario, in the Zambales range; Agudo (1,038 meters), 
Alto (1,127 meters), Lingo (1,659 meters), Abu (1,662 meters), and 
Pinalobo (1,8-11 meters), in the Cabusilan range, and Binlana and 
Butilao (1,324 meters) in the Mariveles range. 

THE TAGAYTAY AND MAQUILING RANGES. 

The range of this name, Tagayta} T , traverses the province of Cavite 
along the boundary which separates Cavite and Batangas, first from 
northwest to southeast, and then from east to west. If it is considered 
as forming a single system with the Maquiling range, it is of equal 
importance with the Zambales range. Considered thus as a single 
range the directions taken are very capricious. Beginning at Point 
Restinga, the last of the Pico de Loro hills, which extend as far as 
the entrance to the Bay of Manila, this range runs from northwest to 
southeast, with various ramifications on both sides, as far as the south- 
ern boundary of the province of Cavite, where the Masalaysay moun- 
tains are situated. It then curves to the northeast until it meets the 
Sungay range, serving throughout this distance as the boundary 
between the provinces of Cavite and Batangas. Here the Laguna 
range begins and runs north and south until it unites with the Maquil- 
ing range, which, continuing in the same direction, north and south, 
between the provinces of Batangas, Laguna, and Tayabas, forms, 
with the Sosomcambing and Malaiwat ranges, various chains in the 
southern part of the province of Batangas. The most important peaks 
between Cavite and Batangas are Masalaysay (812 meters) and Sungay 
(764 meters); between Batangas and Laguna, Maquiling (1,435 meters), 
Sosomcambing, and Malarayat; in the southern part of Batangas, 

141 



142 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Toinbol, Loboo (1,052 meters), and others. Among these, although 
widely separated from them, is the Macalod peak (960 meters), situated 
in front of the Taal volcano on the western coast of Lake Bonbon. 

THE BATANES AND BABUYANES RANGES. 

The Batanes and Babuyanes are two groups of small islands, situ- 
ated north of Luzon, which are separated from each Other by the 
Balintang Channel. In the Batanes, the most northern islands, are 
the peaks of Batan and Itbayat. In the island of Bataan is Mount 
Irada, which rises to a height of 1,100 meters above sea level, and 
appears to be an extinct volcano. To the west of this is Mount 
Inaya. Itbayat, 14 miles north northwest of Bataan, has two peaks 
of medium height — Santa Rosa (206 meters), situated in the extreme 
northeast, and Riposet (243 meters), in the extreme southeast. The 
other mountains in these islands are of little importance. 

Camiguin, having an altitude of 838 meters, is the only peak in the 
Babuyanes group worthy of mention. 

MARINDUQUE. 

The mountain system of this island consists of a principal range 
running from north to south along the eastern coast, from the most 
northern part, Point San Andres, to Dumali, in the extreme southern 
part. From Mount San Antonio, situated in the center of the range, 
there are various spurs running east and west, one of which termi- 
nates at the Bay of Sayao. The principal peaks are Marlanga, or 
Tablazo, Catala, Gasan, Picos, Tapian, and Pubun. 



This island has a central mountain chain running its entire length 
from northwest to southeast — from Point Cueva on the north to the 
most southern extremity. About the middle of this range r'ses the 
cloud-covered peak called Enganoso. 

MASBATE. 

The land of this island is much broken. The axis of its principal 
range takes the form of a semicircle, which, beginning at the extreme 
southwest, runs north and terminates in the southeast. The numerous 
and tortuous spurs thrown off from this range terminate near the 
shore, the only region in the island having level land suitable for culti- 
vation. The highest peaks of the main range are Bagasimbahan, 
Cava nan j and Bagalayag. 



This island is traversed from northwest to southeast throughout its 
length by a mountain chain, somewhat broken by gaps. 



From the central elevation of this island spurs radiate in all direc- 
tion-. 'Y\w most notable peaks are found in the central part and are 
called Malalod and ( apote. 



KEPOBT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 148 



CATANDUANES. 



The mountain system of this island consists of three ranges starting 
from the center. These run respectively, one toward the north, as 
far as Point Yot; another toward the southeast, as far as Point Nagum- 
buayan, and the third toward the southeast, as far as Points A goto and 
Sialat. 



CALAMIANES. 



These islands are in general mountainous and rugged, this being 
especially true of Busuanga. The two principal peaks on Busuanga 
are Culion and Tundalara (65 meters). 



THE VISAYAN ISLANDS. 



Although the orographic system of the island of Samar is some- 
what similar to that of Panay, or, at least, to that of Negros, so that 
its description might form a part of the preceding chapter, neverthe- 
less it seems advisable to treat it separately, as it is not yet well known. 
In general, it is known that the island is very rough, especially in the 
central part. A mountain chain traverses its length from northwest 
to southeast, although this is divided by the valley of the river Ulut, 
which traverses it from the Bay of Maqueda, on the west, to its mouth 
near Tubig, on the eastern coast. Apart from this chain there is in 
the northwest a group of mountains concentrically arranged and situ- 
ated near the Panros Mountains, which separate the western branches 
of the river Hibatan from those which empty to the north between 
Lavezares and Mondragon. The most notable peaks of the central 
chain are, Curao, Capotoan, Palapa, toward the north in the vicinity of 
Catubig, and Matiganao, near the Ungajon, toward the south. Mount 
Nabubusog, near the town of Paranas, may be seen for along distance, 
because of the whiteness of its rocks, the same being true of the Yasey 
Mountains, situated farther to the south. 

LEYTE. 

Leyte is also very rugged. In the center of the island there is a 
mountain chain running its entire, length from northwest to southeast, 
which is at the same time the watershed. There is another chain of 
minor importance in the northeast, between the Strait of San Juanico 
and the valley of the Cabayungan and Palo rivers. This chain extends 
from Point Baluarte, in the extreme north, to the mouth of the river 
Palo in front of the bay of San Pedro and San Pablo, on the eastern 
coast. The highest mountains in these islands are : In the north, Culasi; 
in the west, Magsanga, near Palompon; Mandirin, Caprocan, Aslum, 
and Sibugay, almost in the center. The volcanic peak Caolangojan is 
in Burauen, to the east, while in the south is Sacripante. Southeast of 
Leyte, and but little separated from it, is the island of Panaon, in whose 
southern extremity is found Mount Malangcauan, which has an altitude 
of 706 meters above sea level. 



The mountain system of this island begins in the north, where two 
peaks of considerable altitude arise — Panamao and Mabuy. These, 



144 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

with others of minor importance, form a chain throughout the length 
of the island, {is far as point Pauican, in the extreme southeast. This 
chain forms the watershed of the island. 



The orography of this island is very simple. A mountain chain runs 
from northeast to southwest, somewhat nearer the eastern than the 
western coast, throughout the entire length of the island. This chain 
becomes wider or narrower, according to the configuration of the 
island. These mountains are of little altitude, and do not prevent 
communication between the two coasts. The principal peaks are Tesu- 
big, Mangilao, Uling, Balila, Nagtagug, Moaangid, Ungas, and Tanaoan 
(±5S meters). 



The mountain chain traversing the length of this island is much more 
noticeable in the south than in the north, where the country is quite 
flat. The highest peaks are Alimario and Bunucan, in the vicinity of 
Tobigan; Mahanguin and Lunday, in the vicinity of Guindalman; 
Carabahol and Caloyhuan, in the vicinity of Nagua, and Campusa and 
Canlobo, in the vicinity of Catigbian. The highest mountain, Copton, 
having an elevation of 309 meters, is in the northeast. 

SIQUIJOR. 

This island is very rugged in character. Northeast of the central 
mountain is Mount Cudtingan, which terminates in two peaks, Sandu- 
gan and Daquit. 

GUIMARAS. 

The principal peaks lie along the eastern coast of the island. They 
arc Zaljat, Pandan, and Acdan. 



Two ranges almost parallel to the coast and to each other traverse 
this island from northeast to southwest. In the northern part of the 
eastern chain is Mount Cabcza de Tablas, having an elevation of 733 
meters, and in the central part the peak called Palaopao. 



A single central mountain range traverses the island of Romblon 
from north to south, from Point Tongo to Point Apunan. From this 
range various spurs are thrown off to the right and left, the most 
important being that which terminates at Point Sablayan. The prin- 
cipal peaks are ivomblon, Santiago, and Tagavtay. 



This island is quite mountainous. Among other peaks in the central 
pari is Sibuyan. having an altitude of L,958 meters, which dominates 
the island. 



REPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 145 

THE ISLANDS ADJACENT TO MINDANAO AND THE SOUTHERN GROUPS. 

DUTAGAT. 

From Point Desolacion, in the extreme north, to a point south of 
Gabo the island is traversed throughout its length by a mountain 
range, which runs nearer to the eastern coast than to the western. 
Some of the peaks are of medium elevation. The highest, Mount 
Redondo, lying in the northern part of the island, has an elevation of 
1,017 meters. Other mountain peaks are Cumbre (730 meters), Picudo 
(526 meters), Caballette (516 meters), and Tristan (632 meters). The 
eastern slope of this mountain forms Point Penascales. 



This island is traversed by a little range running from north to south. 

CAMIGUIN. 

This island is very mountainous and rugged, having a central peak 
rising to a height of 1,627 meters above the level of the sea. 



In the island of Basilan there are several mountains more or less 
connected with each other which form a mountain system of little 
importance, Mount Guibanan or Lamutun being the most important. 
It extends from west to east, beginning near the capital town, Isabela, 
nearly to Mount Panocobon. Mount Matangal, which is situated in 
the extreme eastern part of the island, serves as a landmark for ships 
running from Cotobato to Davao. Toward the west are the peaks 
called Tres Picos, which serve as a landmark to boats leaving the port 
of Zamboanga. 

JOLO. 

Among the islands which form the Jolo group the only one worthy 
of mention is the island from which the group takes its name. Three 
chains of mountains almost parallel to each other traverse the island 
in the general direction east-northeast to west-southwest. The most 
elevated of these chains is that which begins at Point Tuctuc, on the 
northern coast, and extends to Point Silangan, on the western extrem- 
ity of the island. Its highest peaks are Bahu (813 meters) and Tuma- 
tanguis (882 meters). The second chain of importance is the central 
range, which runs first parallel to the southwestern coast, then turns 
toward the east, and terminates in the western part of the island in a 
mountain called Tumahu, which has an elevation of 172 meters. Other 
peaks in this range are Tulipan (632 meters), Mabintan (192 meters), 
and Mahuja (337 meters). The peaks of the third range, which runs 
parallel to the southeastern coast, are of little importance. 

TAWI TAWI. 

Tawi Tawi, the largest of the group of this name, has a mountain 
chain running from east-northeast to west-southwest throughout its 
length. Mount Santiago, rising in the southeast, has an elevation of 



146 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

354 meters, and Mount Dromedario, rising in the center of the island, 
has an elevation of 568 meters. One of the spurs of this mountain 
terminates in Point Balimbin. 

PAKAGUA. 

This island is traversed by various mountain ranges of considerable 
elevation, which cross it in all directions, principally in the direction 
of its greatest length, which is from northeast to southwest. The 
highest peak is Mantalingahan, which has an elevation of 2,080 meters. 
Other peaks are Landargun (1,640 meters), Gantuang (1,783 meters), 
Victoria (1,726 meters), and Calibugon (544 meters). 

BALABAC. 

This island is quite mountainous, especially in the southern part. 
The highest peak is Balabac, which has an elevation of 575 meters. 
The range called Sierra Empinada is in the form of a semicircle, hav- 
ing its convexity toward the sea. 



CHAPTER III. 
VOLCANOES. 

VOLCANIC SYSTEMS. 
INFLUENCE OF VOLCANOES ON LAND FORMATION IN THE PHILIPPINES. 

Judging from the geologic and orographic appearances seen in many 
regions in the Philippine Archipelago, volcanoes with their great 
dynamic force have exercised a marked influence. Thus it is easy to 
understand why, in addition to the numerous rocks of pure volcanic 
structure, there should appear so many mountains purely conical in 
form, which are found in almost all of the mountain ranges, and why 
seismic disturbances, more or less violent, are so frequent. But to 
what point does this influence extend? Geologically speaking, what 
regions are purely volcanic ? What belong to other formations ? What 
areas do they occupy ? The science of geology has not been able to solve 
all these problems with regard to the Philippines. For the present 
we know but some isolated facts, with which as a basis the two volcanic 
systems of Taal and of May on have been outlined. 

VOLCANIC SYSTEM OF TAAL. 

According to some authors, this system begins in the chain called 
Caraballos Occidentales, passing by lakes Mangabol, Canaran, and 
Candaba, all of which were probably of volcanic origin, crosses by 
Mount Arayat, the mountain in Pampanga, following along the Sierra 
de Mariveles, the island of Corregidor, and the mountain called Pico 
de Loro, until it reaches the nucleus of the system, which is the active 
volcano Taal, where it unites with Mount Banaho and other peaks of 
volcanic origin. On leaving Taal and the adjacent peaks, Tombol and 
Malarayat, the volcanic formation disappears beneath the waters of 
the Mindoro Sea, to appear again in the island of Negros, in the 
center of which rises Canlaon, or Maiaspina. It then continues in 
Camiguin and terminates in Mindanao, at the end of the Illana chain, 
among whose western peaks is found the volcano of Macaturin. 

VOLCANIC SYSTEM OF MAYON. 

The second volcanic system is that of Mayon, which is of much 
greater importance than the preceding, as containing the most impor- 
tant volcano, that of Mayon, or Albay, from which it takes its name. 
This system runs in a direction approximately parallel to that of the 
preceding. It contains, besides Mayon, all of the extinct volcanoes 
in the provinces of Ambos, Camarines, and Albay. It disappears 
beneath the sea between the islands of Masbate and Samar, manifests 
itself by large deposits of sulphur in Leyte, and, continuing on to 

147 



148 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Mindanao, communicates b}^ means of Mount Apo and Matutum with 
the volcano of Sanguir, and through this with the remaining volcanoes 
in the southern islands. 

THEORY OF THE UNITY OF THESE SYSTEMS. 

The theory which introduces these two systems of volcanoes in the 
Philippines is not, according to certain authors, sufficiently well 
founded. They maintain that the May on system does not hold the 
parallelism which is claimed for it, but that on the contrary the one 
begins where the other leaves off, and that there is no difference except 
that the Taal system begins in the northwest, and runs presently to 
the east, where it encounters the May on sj^stem, thus forming united 
with each other a single system, which with various inflexions traverses 
the different lands which form the Philippine Archipelago. 

NUMBER AND DIVISIONS OF PHILIPPINE VOLCANOES. 

There are 23 volcanoes in the Philippine Archipelago, 11 of these 
being more or less active. They are as follows: In the island of Luzon, 
May on, Taal, Bacon, and Bulusam; in the Babuyanes Islands, Babuyan, 
Camiguin, and Diclica; in the island of Negros, Canlaon or Malaspina; 
in the island of Camiguin, just off the north coast of Mindanao, 
Camiguin; and in the island of Mindanao, Apo and Macturin. The 
others are considered as extinct and are as follows: Cana, Arayat, 
Maquiling, Banahao, and Irasog, in the island of Luzon; Acudining, 
in the island of Leyte; Magaso, in the island of Negros; Dinata, 
Calayo, Matutum, and Butulan, in the island of Mindanao, and Saran- 
ganin, which rises southwest of Davao. 

ACTIVE VOLCANOES. 



The volcano of Ma} r on or Albay is situated in the southeastern part 
of the island of Luzon, in the northern part of the province of Albay. 
Its geographical location is latitude 13° 15' 30" north and longitude 
123° 40' 18" east from Greenwich. It is the most notable of all the 
volcanoes of the archipelago, rising from the center of a great plain to 
a height of 2,734 meters above sea level. It is almost constantly 
crowned by a great cloud of vapor which is emitted with extraordinary 
ability and abundance from the crater. 



The second volcano in importance is Taal, situated in Lake Bonbon 
in the province of Batangas. It rises from an island 22 kilometers in 
circumference. Its geographical situation is between the parallels L3 
52' 4" and 14° 7' 42" north latitude, and longitude 120 53' and 121° 5' 
cast from Greenwich. It is composed mainly of lava and volcanic 
rocks. The crater of this volcano is oval in form and measures in its 
greatest diameter from cast to west 2,300 meters, and in its lesser diame- 
ter from north to south L,900 meters. Its greatest height on the 
southwest is 320 meters above (he level of the lake. From this point 
it descends on both sides to a height of 150 meters on the northwest 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 149 

and east-southeast, and again rises to a height of 234 meters on the north. 
The walls of the crater are quite steep and the floor extends in the form 
of an elliptical plane destitute of vegetation. 1 



This volcanic peak, called also Pocdol, rising 1,400 meters above sea 
level, is situated in the province of Albay, near the eastern coast 
between Mayon and Bulusan volcanoes. Trustworthy persons say that 
at times smoke rises in considerable quantities from Bacon. 

BULUSAN. 

The volcano of Bulusan is situated at latitude 12° 46' 40" north and 
longitude 124° 2' east from Greenwich. Seen from the east it appears 
to be a .single peak, which is the crater of the volcano, and which 
appears to have an altitude equal to that of Mayon as seen from the 
northwest. Seen from the south-southwest it appears to have two 
peaks, and very much resembles Vesuvius. It is almost extinct, but 
at times emits an abundance of watery vapor and sulphurous fumes. 

BABUYAN. 

The volcano of Babuyan is situated in the southern extremity of the 
island of the same name, in the Babu}^anes group. On account of its 
appearance and its great eruption the island is completely deserted. 

CAMIGUIN DE BABUYANES. 

The island of Camiguin is very mountainous and high. The south- 
ern part is formed by a mountain 736 meters in height, which takes 
the name of the island. This is the volcano of Camiguin, which, 
according to the testimony of persons who have passed that way, is 
constantly burning. 

DIDICA. 

The Didicas rocks are reefs lying east of Camiguin. To the north- 
west and forming a group with them is a little island 60 meters high 
and a mile in circumference, which has on its north coast the crater of 
an active volcano. The common report is that this crater was formed 
in 1856, and that the following year there was a violent eruption accom- 
panied with small earthquakes. 

CANLAON OR MALASPINA. 

Canlaon or Malaspina rises from the central mountain chain of the 
island of Negros about latitude 10° 24' 35" north. It has a height of 
1,400 meters, throws out smoke continually, and, according to report, 
has been in eruption in recent times. 

CAMIGUIN DEL SUR. 

This volcano appeared the 30th of April, 1871, in a little island 
situated north of Mindanao, 340 meters southwest of the town of 

X A historical account of the eruptions of Taal and Mayon may be found in the 
treatise on seismic foci. 



150 REPORT OF THE 1'HILIPPDSrE COMMISSION. 

Catarman. It is situated on the western part of the island. Its 
appearance was accompanied by a violent eruption. 1 



This is the principal volcano existing in Mindanao. It is situated 
15 miles west of the shore of the Bay of Daval, and is a high moun- 
tain which slopes gradually from its highest point to the shore. On 
its summit are three peaks, the highest of which, that to the south- 
west, has an altitude of 3,300 meters above sea level and is the one con- 
taining the crater. Long before reaching this crater deafening and 
intermittent subterranean sounds are heard, which increase as the 
distance diminishes. The} r finally become so great that it seems as 
though the earth would disappear from under the feet, and that an 
eruption would soon begin. Two expeditions have succeeded in 
reaching the top of this famous volcano, that of D. Joaquin Rajal, 
governor of Daval, in 1880, and that of the two German naturalists, 
Alexander Schamdemberg and Otto Koch, in 1882. 

MACATURIN. 

This is the highest point of the elevated Rangaya Mountains in the 
Sugut Range, situated in the territory of Buha} T en about 40 kilometers 
from Pollok. Macaturin in former times gave evidence of prodigious 
activit}^, throwing out enormous masses of ingneous rock such as are 
now seen in the port of Pollok. 

EXTINCT VOLCANOES. 



Caua is a volcanic promontory situated in the northern part of the 
Sierra Madre Range near Cape Engano. It is 1,195 meters in height. 
It is commonly considered to be extinct, but Dr. Semper claims to have 
seen from Aparri a cloud of smoke issuing from this crater. 



In the middle of the great plain of Parnpanga, latitude 15 c 13' 28" 
north, the solitary peak of Ara} x at rises in the form of a majestic 
cone to a height of 1,069 meters. Because of its situation its form and 
the character of the rocks which constitute it, it is clearly of volcanic 
origin. 

MAQUILING. 

Northeast of theTaal volcano, in the Tagaytay Range, which divides 
the provinces of Batangasand Laguna, this peak rises to a height of 
1 . L35 meters. ( )n its top is the crater of an old volcano, the inside of 
which presents very abrupt walls most marked toward the north, where 
they are almost vertical and have an elevation of 500 meters. 

'. Details concerning the eruption of Canjiguin and of expeditions made to the 

volcano <.!' \|><> may !><■ found in the treatise of seismic foci, chap. 4. 
*. See map 27 of the Atlas of the Philippines. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 151 



BANAHAO. 



To the east, and not far from Maquiling, is Banahao, which rises to 
a height of 2,230 meters above the level of the sea. Its crater, having 
a diameter of 5 kilometers, is entirely covered with vegetation. Its last 
eruption in 1750 buried the town of Sariaya and part of the surround- 
ing country in ashes. 



ISAROG. 



Isarog, situated northeast of May on, in the province of South Cama- 
rines, is also an extinct volcano. It is in the form of a cone, rising 



1,966 meters above the level of the sea. 



ACUDINING. 



Under this name are included some volcanic peaks in the Sierra 
Dagami and Danan ranges, near Burauen, in the island of Leyte. 



This is a volcanic mountain in the Sierra de Dumaguete range, near 
the town of Bacon, in the southern part of Negros. 



The volcanic peak Diuata forms part of the eastern range of Min- 
danao, and is situated between the towns of Lianga and Hinatuan. 

CALAYO. 

Calayo, called also Sugut, lies east-southeast of Macaturin, about 
80 kilometers from the sea. 

MATUTUM. 

Matutum, situated north of the Bay of Sarangani, not far from the 
sea, is undoubtedly the crater of an ancient volcano. 



Butulan is another volcanic mountain, situated north of Point Pan- 
guian, in the southern part of the district of Daval. 

SARANGANI. 

In the island of Balut Grande, the largest of the Sarangani group, 
6 miles from the southern point of Mindanao, is the volcano called 
Sarangani. It has an elevation of 930 meters. Seen from the north- 
west it appears to have two peaks. In the extreme southwest of the 
island there is another volcanic peak much smaller than this. 



PAPER NO. Ill 



HYDROGRAPHY 



p c— VOL 3—01 17 153 



PROLOGUE. 

In this small treatise on hydrography we do not pretend to present 
an accurate work regarding- the maritime and terrestrial hydrography 
of the Philippine Archipelago, but only to give a general idea of the 
hydrographic conditions of these islands, since a complete and ade- 
quate work on this subject in the actual state of the hydrographic 
works that have been accomplished by sea and land in the archipelago 
would be little less than impossible without counting on much time 
and on large and costly means. 

We have confined ourselves to collecting and setting in order some 
data, taken for the most part from the ' ' Derrotero del Archipielago 
Filipino" (collection of sea charts of the Philippine Archipelago), so 
far as concerns the maritime hydrography, and to picking out what 
refers to terrestrial hydrography from maps and geographical works 
that have been published up to date, adding, as the complement of 
terrestrial hydrography, a brief study of the minero-medicinal waters, 
based on the reports published by scientific commissions appointed to 
examine said waters. Therefore, this treatise comes to be a more 
circumstancial amplification of what is said in the ' ' Guia Oficial de 
Filipinas " (Official Guide of the Philippines) regarding the hydrogaphy 
of these islands. 

Manila, December 8, 1899. 

155 



PART FIRST. 



MARITIME HYDKOaEAPHY. 



CHAPTER I. 

LUZON AND ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

ISLAND OF LUZON. 



The most important gulf of Luzon, and the only one properly such, 
is that of Lingayen, situated on the western coast. The entrance 
opens toward the north-northwest, and is comprised between the 
island Santiago, on the west, and the point of San Fernando, on the 
east. Its width in this part is some 20 miles, with soundings of 100 to 
117 meters, on an average sand and mud bottom, Hence the gulf 
extends for 28 miles to the south-southeast. The eastern coast is 
formed by the high mountains of Union and dominated by the peak of 
Santo Tomas. The western coast is of moderate height and quite alike 
up to Mongosmongos, then it rises by successive steps up to an enor- 
mous mountainous mass, which runs toward the south. 

BAYS. 

Manila Bay. — The principal bay of Luzon, and perhaps of the whole 
archipelago as to its extent, is that of Manila, which occupies an unim- 
provable position for domestic and foreign trade with the nations and 
colonies of the Far East. It is situated, approximately, in the middle 
of the western coast of Luzon. It is beautiful, extensive, clear, and 
good anchoring ground. At its end there is situated the city of Manila, 
capital of the archipelago, and on its southeastern side the town and 
arsenal of Cavite. Rivers as important as the Grande de la Pampanga, 
the Pasig, the Orani, and the Imus, all navigable, empty into it. 

The exterior elevation of the points of Hornos on the north and 
Limbones on the south marks distinctly the great ravine which the 
mountain ridge of Mariveles and that of Tagatay near the peak of 
Loro form between them. It has a depth of 32 miles to the northeast, 
and has a width of 30 miles at its eastern extremity nad only 10 miles 
at its mouth, which is divided into two channels or passages formed by 
the islands of Corregidor and Pulo Caballo. The passage two miles 
wide, comprised between Corregidor Island and the northern shore of 
the entrance of the bay — that is, the Mariveles coast — is called the 

157 



158 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

"Boca Chica" (small mouth), and the passage five miles wide, formed 
by Corregidor Island and the southern shore of the entrance of the 
ba}^, is called the "Boca Grande" (large rnouth). The "Derrotero 
del Archipielago Filipino " (collection of sea charts of the Philippine 
Archipelago) says the following regarding this bay: 

The lands which surround the interior of the bay are generally low, liable to be 
overflowed, and cut up by innumerable small rivers, creeks, and lakes formed by 
the overflow of the tide, which toward the east usually communicate with the 
Laguna de Bay, and toward the west with the marshy lands which drain into 
Lingayen. 

Lapog. — On the western coast of Luzon, to the north of the Gulf of 
Lingayen, is the bay of Lapog, incomparably smaller than that of 
Manila. . It is situated 10 miles to the north-northeast of Dile Point, 
and is comprised between Darrena Point on the north and the island of 
Santo Domingo on the south, and is some two miles wide by one in 
depth. Its southern part is called the bay of Magsingal, and the north- 
ern part the bay of Lapog, between which is found the anchorage of 
Lapog or Solotsolot. The northern and southern shores of this bay 
project reefs for a quarter of a mile, but in the middle and at the end 
of the bay they are wholly absent, and these make an anchorage of 
from 10 to 13 meters depth, sand bottom, up to near the shore. This is 
in the province of Ilocos Sur. 

Dingala. — The bay of Dingala is found on the eastern coast of 
Luzon, situated 3i miles to the southwest of the cape of San Ildefonso 
and 18 miles, approximately in the same direction, from the sound of 
Baler. Its entrance inclosed between the points Sua to the north and 
Deseada to the south is 6f miles wide; it is open to the winds from 
the northeast to the southeast by the east, and it has a depth of 3 miles 
long toward the west. Both points at the entrance are very clean and 
the water is deep in their proximity, although that on the south has 
several rocks very near it on that side. 

Lamon. — The bay of Lamon, or the small gulf included between the 
point Inaguican on the northwest and the lands of Mambulao on the 
southeast, is also wortlry of special mention. It is 45 miles wide at the 
mouth and extends more than 35 miles to the south, so narrowing the 
island of Luzon at this point (province of Tavabas) that it reduces it to a 
true isthmus some 5 miles wide, which joins the large upper body of the 
island to the lower one, in which are the provinces of Am bos Camar- 
ines, Alba}^, and Sorsogon. Before the entrance of the bay is found 
the island of Polillo, and to the southeast of it that of Jomalig with 
two small islands on its eastern side which protect it from the winds 
from the north. Within the bay there is the little island of Balesin, and 
further in those of Cabalete and Alabat and neighboring small islands, 
which, extending from the west-northwest to the cast-southeast, form 
with the shore at the end of the hay a sheltered port with good 
anchorage. 

Sa/n w&quel. — Almost in the middle of the northern coast of the 
province of Ambos Camarines is the bay of San Miguel, open toward 
the north and formed by tin 4 points Sagcadoc and Sapenitan. It is 
circular in shape, some lo to L2 miles in diameter, clear, and sur- 
rounded by high mountains, offering a sab 4 shelter to all kinds of 
ships after avoiding the reefs which run out from the points at the 
entrance. 



EEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 159 

SMALL BAYS AND COVES. 

There are many and very important ones in the island of Luzon. 
We shall enumerate the principal ones: 

MANILA BAY. 

Sisiman. — At the entrance of Manila Bay, between points Gorda 
and Aguaguan, on the coast of Mariveles, is the bay of Sisiman, which 
extends toward the northeast, with a sandy shore, where very good 
water is found. Its depth is from 3 to 13 meters, sand bottom. 

Patungan. — Also at the entrance of Manila Bay, on the southern 
coast, is the bay of Patungan, included between the small islands Lim- 
bones and Carabao, between which the soundings give from 42 to 50 
meters of water. It extends 2 miles to the south-southeast, toward 
the mountain peak of Loro, and is protected from the winds from the 
second and third quarters. 

Cafiacao. — Within the ba} T , between the point of sand called Sangley, 
in which the peninsula of Cavite ends, and the tongue of sand on which 
the town of Cavite is located, is the bay of Canacao. It is 7 cables 
wide at the entrance and extends for 8 cables to the southwest. It is 
only 5 to 6 meters deep. It is sheltered from the winds from the west 
and southwest and exposed to those from the first quarter. 

Bacoor. — Besides the bay of Canacao, there is that of Bacoor, which 
penetrates some 2 miles toward the southwest into the province of 
Cavite, and has on its southern shore the important towns of Cavite, 
Viejo, and Bacoor. It would be a magnificent harbor if it were not 
choked with loose mire, which covers it to such an extent that no other 
craft than the very light ones of the country can navigate it. 

WEST COAST. 

Sailing along the western coast of Luzon, from Hornos Point to- 
ward the north, the following bays or coves are found successively in 
the order named: 

Guay. — Between Guay Point on the north and Hornos on the south 
is this small bay, which is a good anchorage during the northeast 
monsoon. 

Bagac. — Beyond Point Luzon is found the bay of Bagac, 3 miles wide 
and 1 deep, open to the southwest. 

Caguan. — Within the port of Subic is found the cove of Caguan, 
toward the northwest, included between point Cabangan, which is 
situated at the bottom of it, and that of Manisbasco. 

Silanguin, JVazasa, Tilisain, and Calaguaguin. — Are four clear and 
deep bays that penetrate the high and accessible coast of Capones, open 
to the west and southwest at the northern exit of the port of Subic, 
near the southern extremity of the province of Zambales. 

Palauig. — Following the coast toward the north is found the cove of 
Palauig, inclosed between the points Bulubutu and Nuglubilac. It is 
open toward the northwest, and extends 1 scant mile toward the south- 
east. Its depth diminishes from 25 meters at the entrance to 8 near 
the shore at the end. 

Masinloc. — A bay comprised between points Palanguitin on the 
south and Bani on the north, 5 miles distant from each other. 



160 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Dasol. — To the north of the small island Raton there extends a large 
b&y called Dasol, embraced between points Caiman on the north and 
Ba} r amban on the south. It has before it several rocks or barren islands 
which make the entrance dangerous, and contains within it two prin- 
cipal coves. 

Agno Grande. — Having passed the bay of Dasol and doubled the 
point of Agno Grande, the cove of this name is found, of a circular 
form and sheltered from the winds from the first quarter, with a sandy 
bottom and a depth of 10 to 13 meters. 

Abagata. — Near Agno Grande is the cove of Abagata, with a bad 
bottom. 

JVamagpacan. — Having passed the gulf of Linga}^en, to the north 
of San Fernando, between point Darigayos and the point located south 
of Bangar, there is the cove of Namagpacan, which took the name of 
the town located on it. 

Solbec. — The bay of Sol bee is very small and is situated some 6 miles 
north of the town of San Esteban. 

Currimao. — The cove of Currimao is inclosed between points Sugot 
on the south and Arboledan on the north, and is divided in two by the 
point Gabot, one of which is the cove of Gan, to the north of Solod 
Point. 

Dirique. — Very near Cape Bojeador is the bay of Dirique, with fair 
conditions as to depth and shelter. 

NORTH COAST. 

Bangui. — Doubling Cape Bojeador, the large bay of Bangui is found, 
embraced between points Negra and Dialao. 

Some other small bays are found on the north coast of Luzon, which 
are lacking in importance, if we except the great angle which extends 
from Point Pata to the strait which the island Palaui forms with Luzon, 
an angle which might well merit the name of bay and even of gulf of 
Aparri, although we do not find it under either name on the maps, nor 
so mentioned by any author. 

EAST COAST. 

Divilacan and Palanan. — Doubling Cape Engano, at some 73 miles 
S. 5° E. of the northeastern extremity of Luzon, is found the so-called 
Fronton Moises. This headland forms on its northern side the bay of 
Divilacan and on its southern side the cove of Palanan, semicircular in 
shape and very deep. Both belong to the province of Isabela. 

Dildsac. — Following the coast toward the south there is found, at 
some 60 miles from the Fronton Moises, the cove of Dilasac or port of 
Tumango, between the points Dinapiqui and Tarigtig in the province 
of [sabela. 

Casigv/ran. — This magnificent bay is found a few miles to the south 
of Point Tarigtig, formed by a great tongue of land which extends 
from (he aorth-noHheast to the south-southwest and ends in the cape 
or point San Qdefonso, in the district of Principe. 

Baler. In the same district of Principe, a short distance to the 
south of Cape San Ildefonso. extends t he spacious hay of Baler, between 

the points Delgaga and Encanto. 

Uibut. The hay of Dibut opens between the points Diotoring and 
Encanto. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 161 

Apat and Sogod. — Are two open bays on the northern coast of Taya- 
bas and Camarines, respectively. 

Lagonoy. — This broad bay, formed to the south of the peninsula of 
Caramoan, penetrates some 18 miles to the west-northwest, and is 
some 22 miles wide. 

Tabaco. — The bay of Tabaco extends to the south of Lagonoy. It 
is elliptical in shape, some 6 miles in extent on its major axis, which 
runs from northwest to southeast. It is formed by the cove which 
indents the coast of Luzon between Natunaguan and the tongue of 
land which projects toward the east as far as Point Sula and the 
islands of San Miguel and Cacraray. It has. from 10 to 15 meters of 
water very near the shore. 

Albay. — The bay of Albay is found in the northern part of the 
southeastern extremity of the peninsula in which the island of Luzon 
terminates. 

Sugot. — Doubling Point Cauit, in the bay of Albay, there is found 
toward the east the cove of Sugot, which opens to the east of the town 
Bacon. It is of little importance. 

Gubat. — This cove is found some 12 miles to the north of the town 
of Bulusan. 

Matnog. — The cove of Matnog opens between the reefs which sur- 
round the coast from Caranhan to Point Pan dan. 

Dunol and Babnlgan, — Are two small coves located in the extreme 
southeast of Luzon. 

Milagbiga. — Before passing Point Tajiran, which is the most west- 
erly of the southeastern extremity of Luzon, in the Strait of San 
Bernardino, is found the cove of Milagbiga, inclosed between a head- 
land of pebbly sand covered with trees, called Coroncoron, and the 
next point to the east Suae, of small extent, but vei:y deep. 

SOUTH COAST. 

Tajiran, Canomalag, Cabaranan, and Marinap. — Beyond Point 
Tajiran are found the coves of Tajiran, Canomalag, Cabaranan, and 
Marinap, embraced between points Tajiran and Barugo. That of 
Marinap is good for ships of any tonnage. 

Bulag. — To the southeast of Point Bulag, between points Angil and 
Barugo, extends the bay of Bulag, of good depth and with conditions 
favorable for craft. 

Palatuan. — Passing the port of Sorsogon, traveling toward the 
west, is the cove of Palatuan, to the east of the port of Putiao, of little 
depth and formed by the points Calcut and Bantique. 

Macoto and Camnahala. — Beyond Point Cadburanan or Panga- 
niran the coast deviates toward the north to form the great bay of 
Ragay. Between said point and that of Bondog, in the southern 
extremity of the peninsula of Tayabas, some 43 miles distant from one 
another, various minor coves are found. The first is that of Macoto, 
between points Macoto and Badian, clear and with a good depth, which 
varies from 10 to 42 meters, although the shore is accessible. 

Jamuraon. — The cove of Jamuraon comprised between points Sibono 
and Siruma or Caurusan, is formed of a headland of high lands, having 
33 meters of water in their vicinity. It is 7 miles wide and li long. 

Caima. — To the southeast of the small island Saboon the bay of 



162 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Caima opens, 8 miles long by 3 deep, ending toward the south at 
Point Galvaney. It is obstructed with large reefs. 

Rag ay. — The end of the bay formed by the province of Tayabas and 
that of Ambos Camarines is properly called the bay of Ragay, although 
some give this name to the whole extent of sea inclosed between the 
two above-mentioned provinces. 

Catabanga. — Bay to the northwest of that of Raga}% inclosed 
between Point Quilbait and that of Bagutayoc, distant 3i miles from 
one another. 

Talcauayan. — Bay formed by points Ausan and Mambulao. 

Catimag. — The bay of Ragay ends in a little cove called Catimag, 
into which the small river Vinas empties. 

Peris. — Following along the western coast of the great bay of 
Ragay there is found the cove of Peris, some \Z\ miles to the north- 
west of Point Gorda, inclosed between points Lian on the north and 
Guihalinan on the south. 

Sombocogon. — Passing by Point Gorda and the port of Pusgo there 
is found the cove of Sombocogon, Si miles to the north-northwest of 
Point Arena, which is very much frequented by the small native 
craft. 

Pinamuntangan. — Rounding the point of Bondog, in which the 
headland called Head of Bondog ends, the cove of Pinamuntangan is 
found, embraced between the haven of Aguasa and the point Pina- 
muntangan. It is small and open toward the west. 

Aguasa. — The haven of Aguasa is found to the north-northeast of 
the preceding one. 

Ayoni. — The harbor of Ayoni opens near the previous one. 

Catanaguan. — Five miles to the east-southeast of Point Tuquian 
extends the cove of Catanaguan, some 2 miles wide and 1 deep. It is 
good and sheltered from the winds from the first and fourth quarters. 

PagMlao. — Following along from Point Taquian, coasting toward 
the northwest, is the haven of Pagbilao, between points Bocboc or 
Bantigui to the west and the south point of the island Capulaan or 
Pagbilao Grande to the east. It is 2 miles wide. The entrance is 
difficult and the space for anchoring limited. 

Capulaan. — The cove of Capulaan is found to the southwest of the 
island of this name. 

Domonclon. — A small cove formed to the northeast, and at a short 
distance from the river and point Tayabas. 

Buenli. — Another small cove formed b}^ the low point of Tayabas 
on its western side. 

Great bay of Tayabas. — All the small coves included between points 
Bondog and Bantigui are found within the so-called bay of Tayabas 
between the provinces of Tayabas and Batangas. 

II i jit a. — The haven of llijan opens next the point of that name 
toward the east. It has an extent of one mile and ends in the flat and 
clear coast point called Arenas. 

Burijcm, Passing through the northern passage of Yerdc Island to 
the west, there is found the small elbow or cove of Burijan. It is 
obstructed and has little Importance. 

Ma/rara. Near the preceding elbow is found the haven of Marara, 

which unites good conditions of depth and shelter. 

Pmagcuru8(m. Sailing past Point Tubunan toward the west, in the 
space of half a mile the coast presents two headlands of rock, inter- 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 163 

posed with sandbanks, from which the coast of beach and woods 
extends to form the cove which the natives call Pinagcurusan. 

Tingloy. — This cove, just as the preceding one, is found on the 
northeastern coast of the island of Maricaban. The headland Putin- 
Bujanin and the point Tubunan form it. It is small and is almost 
unused on account of its many reefs and shoals. 

Batangas. — The bay of Batangas is inclosed between Point Cazador 
to the west, and that of Matocot to the east-southeast, distant 9 miles 
from each other. It has a clear coast and is very deep, and the haven 
of Mainaga is included in it. 

Janaojanao. — Is found to the south of the cove of Taal. 

Taal. — The cove of Taal is on the northeastern coast of the bay or 
haven of Balayan. It is some 5 miles in extent and is bounded on the 
south by the point and small pointed islands of Janaojanao. 

Balayan. — This harbor opens immediately to the north of Point San 
Pedrino; it penetrates a little more than 2 miles to the northwest, and 
ends in the river and town of Balayan, some 6 miles north of said 
point. 

San Pedrino or Pagapas. — The cove of San Pedrino is inclosed 
between the northeast headland of Cape Santiago and Point San Pedrino, 
extending some 3-J- miles to the northwest. 

Bay of Balayan or Taal. — This broad bay extends between Point 
Benagalet on the east and Cape Santiago on the west, which are 13 
miles distant from each other. It enters some 14 miles toward the 
north; is a clear coast, without depth, and with very accessible shores. 

SOUTHWEST COAST. 

Talin. — Rounding Cape Santiago the cove of Talin is found, formed 
by the points San Diego and Talin. It is 3f miles wide and 1^ miles 
deep in the southwestern part; it is exposed and has an uneven bottom. 

Na&ugbu.— Sailing along the coast from Point San Diego toward 
the north is found the cove of Nasugbu, formed by said point and that 
of Nasugbu. It is formed of low land with a beach of dark sand, and 
is accessible, with trees up to a very short distance from the edge. 

Looc. — The cove of Looc opens immediately to the south of the 
point and small barren island of Buri, and is embraced between this 
point and that of Fuego or Calayo on the south, which are 2 miles 
distant from each other. It is a very poor anchorage. 

Passing by the cove of Looc and following the coast in the direction 
of Manila Bay, is the cove of Patungan, already described in the 
beginning. 

PORTS AND ANCHORAGES. 

MANILA BAY. 

Manila. — Naturally the port of Manila is nothing more than an 
anchoring ground. Some craft of great burden can enter into the 
Pasig River and anchor in it when they can pass the bar of the river, 
which is quite a difficult passage at low tide. An artificial port is being 
constructed. 

Cavite. — The port of Cavite is located to the south of Manila Bay 
and one-third of a mile to the southeast of the town of Cavite. It is 
the port and arsenal of the navy, and arranged solely to make the 



164 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

necessary repairs to the ships of the military station. The anchorage 
of Cavite is small and has a depth of only 5 to 5£ meters. It is exposed 
to winds from the east and sheltered from those from the west. 

Corregidor. ~ -On the north coast of Corregidor there is a small port 
for minor craft, of good depth and excellent anchoring ground, shel- 
tered from the north wind. 

Mariveles. — The port of Mariveles is on the south coast of the province 
of Bataan, to the northwest of Corregidor. The points Lechones and 
Gorda define the entrance. It is a good port in which ships of any 
tonnage can anchor. 

WEST COAST. 

Binanga or Minangas. — At a short distance to the north of the 
entrance of Manila Bay and to the southeast of that of Subic, is the 
port of Binanga, very small and protected from all winds excepting 
those from the west and west-southwest. 

Subic. — The port of Subic, one of the best in the archipelago, is 
located at a short distance to the northwest of the preceding one. 
It consists of a spacious bay, within which there are very well sheltered 
and safe coves with good anchorages, such as that of Olongapo. 

Iba. — On the same coast of Zambales, some 40 miles to the north of 
Subic, is the anchorage of Iba, commonly called Hoya de Iba, in the 
center of the cove formed by points Guay and Iba. 

Matalvi. — The port of Matalvi is the one which the island of this 
name forms with the south coast of the bay or cove of Masinloc. 

Salvador. — The island of this name has a fair anchorage on its 
western coast, which is near the previous port. 

Santa Cruz. — The anchorage of Santa Cruz is a small cove formed 
by the point of this name on the south and Balibago on the north. 

Dasol. — To the east of point Caiman is the cove of Dasol, which 
contains two anchorages of good depth. 

Bolinao. — The island of Santiago, in the gulf of Lingayen, and the 
peninsula of cape Bolinao form a narrow channel, open towards the 
northwest, with a depth varying from 14 to 22 meters, called the port 
of Bolinao. 

Cienlslas. — The anchorage of Cien Mas is found south of the group 
of islands of this name on the western coast of the gulf of Lingayen. 

Sual. — The port of Saul is the second cove, 2 miles south of the 
island of Cabalitian. The interior of this port is divided into two 
anchorages, separated by a bank of coral which, running out from the 
west coast, extends for more than half its distance towards point 
Portuguesa. 

Santo Tomas. — The port of Santo Tomas, in the province of Union, 
is formed by a bank which runs from point Santo Tomas for approxi- 
mately 2 miles toward the south, over which there are from 3 to 10 
meters of water. 

San Fernando. — In the same province of Union, a small peninsula 
to the north of Santo Tomas forms with the adjacent coast two small 
anchorages; in the southern one there is a depth of 11 to L2 meters, 
and in the northern one is the port of San Fernando. 

Santiago. The small port of Santiago is situated 4.1 miles N. £ NE. 
of point ( Sandon, in the province of Iiocos Sur. 

San Esteban. The port of San Este ban is also small and accessible, 
It is found 2.1 miles from that of Santiago. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 165 

Canny an. — The anchorage of Cauayan is 2i miles to the southwest 
of Vigan. 

Salomague. — The port of Salomague is a small haven surrounded 
with reefs. It is safer and more sheltered than that of Lapog. 

Lapog. — Is an anchorage at the foot of the ba}^ of this name. 

Cabugao. — Between the islands Salamogue and Badoc is the anchor- 
age of Cabugao, some 11 to 13 meters deep. 

Currimao. — The port of Currimao, in the province of Ilocos Norte, 
is a small circular haven formed to the east of point Arboledan. 

Dirique. — The anchorage of Dirique is found in the bay of this 
name and is from 11 to 20 meters deep. 

NORTH COAST. 

Bangui. — The anchorage of Bangui, situated neai the northeastern 
extremity of Luzon, is in the bay of the same name. Formerly it was 
a good port, but it was closed by an earthquake. 

Aparri. — The port of Aparri, if it ma}^ be called such, is obstructed 
and is opposite the southeastern point of the entrance of the large 
river of Cagayan. The bar of the river has very little water over it 
and at certain seasons of the year large ships can cross it with difficulty. 

San Vicente. — The port of San Vicente lies between the northeast- 
ern extremity of Luzon, the little island of San Vicente, and the south- 
eastern part of the mountainous and rugged island of Palaui. It can 
hold several ships perfectly protected from all winds, and is 5 to 10 
meters deep, with a mud bottom. Before the mouth of the port there 
are some good anchoring grounds, but more exposed than the port. 

EAST COAST. 

Dimalansan and Bicobian. — Are small ports which open in the har- 
bors of Divilacan and Palanan. 

Tumango. — The port of Tumango is found in the bay of Dilasac. 

Lam/pon. — The port of Lampon is situated in the northwestern 
extremity of the bay of Lamon. It is small, but well sheltered. It 
is celebrated in history because it was for several years during the six- 
teenth centuiy the depot of the galleons and wealth of Manila, called 
the Royal Port. It is located in the district of Infanta. 

Mambulao. — Is found to the northeast of the end of the bay of 
Ragay, on the opposite coast, inclosed between points Pinandunguan 
and Dajican. 

Sisiran. — The port of Sisiran is remarkable because it is the one 
which, at the end of the last century, was considered the only one on 
the opposite coast of Luzon to receive the ships which arrived late 
from Acapulco or to hold hidden and ready a ship for carrying state 
papers to New Spain or Mexico. It is formed by the island Quina- 
kyag, on the west, and the point Pambuan, on the east, and is sheltered, 
clear, and of good depth. 

Taoaco. — The anchorage of Tabaco is in the bay of the same name. 

Sula. — The port of Sula is formed in the southern extremity of the 
narrow channel which separates the island of Cacraray from the main- 
land. It is very sheltered and good anchoring ground. 

p c— vol 3—01 18 



166 EEPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

SOUTH COAST. 

Sorsogon. — Rounding point Tajiran toward the west is the magnifi- 
cent port of Sorsogon, considered as the best of all those which are 
found in the passage from the strait of Verde Island to that of San 
Bernardino. (Described in the Treatise on Chorographv, Chapter V, 

Putiao. — The port of Putiao is a bay of little depth, which the 
coastwise ships are accustomed to enter at high tide. It lies between 
points Dumaquit, on the west, and Cutcut, on the east, and is sur- 
rounded with reefs. 

Pantao. — The anchorage of Pantao is to the southeast of point 
Simura, near the cove of Jamuraon. 

Pasacao. — The anchorage or bar of Pasacao is between two little 
flat-topped hills, near point Sibono. 

Pusgo. — The port of Pusgo is found to the north-northwest of point 
Arena. It is long and narrow. 

Mulanay. — The anchorage of Mulanay is located on the western 
coast of the peninsula of Tayabas, south of the ba} T of Catanauan. 

Pltogo. — The anchorage of Pitogo is 2 miles to the east-northeast of 
Point Mabio. 

Calaylayan. — The anchorage of Calajdayan is an elbow which is 
formed to the west of Point Silancapo. 

Laguimanoc. — The port of Laguimanoc is inclosed between the east 
coast of the island Pagbilao Chico and the coast of Laguimanoc. 

Bay of Tayabas. — Along the whole coast comprised between the 
river Tayabas and the river Nayun it is possible to anchor in the depth 
of water that may be suitable, because at a little more than half a mile 
from the shore there is a depth of 18 meters. 

It is also possible to anchor on that part of the coast comprised 
between the river Na} r un and the small cove situated to the northwest 
of Point Bantigui. From Point Bantigui up to that of Malabrigo 
there are quite a number of elbows and sites suitable for anchoring, 
especially beyond Point Sigayan. Likewise along the coast which 
runs from Point Malabrigo to the cove of Ilijan or Matocot ships of 
any tonnage can anchor, 

Sur de Batomgas. — The deep and narrow channel which is formed 
between the islands of Maricaban and Caban is a good anchorage for 
all kinds of ships. Such is the case also with the one found on the coast 
comprised between points Bauan and Pinamucan, which terminates in 
beaches of sand. 

Taal. — The best anchorage in the bay of Taal is to the north of the 
mouth of the river Pansipit. 

Balayan. — The best anchorage in the harbor of this name is found 
to the cast of the river Balayan. 

SOUTHWEST COAST. 

7'd/!n. — Rounding Cape Santiago and following along toward the 
north is the cove of Talin, and in it an anchorage with fair conditions. 

XasiKjhii,- To the northwest of Talin is the anchorage of Nasugbu, 
in the eove of the same name. 

Jamdo, — Finally, 2i miles south of Point Limbones, the cove of 
Jamelo opens, and to the southeast of it is situated the port called 
JamelOj with a clear coast and good anchoring ground. 



KEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 167 

CAPES AND POINTS. 

The capes of Luzon are: Bojeador, in Ilocos Norte; Engano, on the 
island of Palaui, extreme northeast of Luzon; San Ildefonso, at the 
entrance of the cove of Casiguran, district of Principe; Santiago, on 
the southwest of the bay of Balayan, province of Batangas; and Boli- 
nao, at the entrance of the gulf of Lingayen, province of Zanibales; 
to which should be added, according to some authors, that of Baluagan, 
located on the eastern coast of the bay of San Miguel. 

As to the points, we have already enumerated almost all the princi- 
pal ones in Luzon in locating the various ba} 7 s and coves; nevertheless, 
in order that they may be recognized with greater facility on the maps, 
we shall cite them here in their order, especially the most important 
ones, commencing from Manila Bay and passing round the island of 
Luzon by the northeast and south until we reach the entrance of the 
same bay from the south. 

MANILA BAY. 

In the interior of Manila Bay point Sangley, of the province of 
Cavite, juts out, and on the northwest coast of this same province 
point Restinga. On the east coast of the province of Bataan are found, 
successively, points Malabaton, Pandan, Linao, Lamao, Limay, Real, 
San Jose, and Lasisi, and on the south coast those called Gorda, Talayo, 
and Hornos. 

WEST COAST. 

Bataan. — Points: Guay, Luzan, Canas, Caibaba, Saisain, Napo, 
Alinin, and Nabasan. 

Zanibales. — Points: Biniptican, Silanguin, Capones, Botolan, Casila- 
gan, Palauig, 0} T on, Bani, Arenas, Santa Cruz, Bunop, Bayamban, 
Dauli, Caiman, Tambobo, Arena, Piedra, Balingasag, Encarnada, 
Verde y Pastora. 

Pangasinan. — Points: Portuguesa and Mam^a. 

Union. — Points: Santo Tomas,Baoang, San Fernanclo,and Darigayos. 

Ilocos Stir. — Points: Candon, Dile, and Santo Domingo. 

Ilocos Norte. — Points: Solod, Culili, Blanca, Negra, and Dialao. 

NORTH COAST. 

Ilocos Norte. — Points: Mayraira, Buagan, and Lacaylacay. 
Cagayan. — Points: Cabicungan, Pata, Batulinao Pont, and Diur. 
Island of 'Palaui. — Points: Nordeste and Cogon. 

EAST COAST. 

Cagayan. — Points: Escarpada, Quijada, Padnanungan e Higan. 

Isabela. — Points: Dimalansan, Aubarede, Disumangit, Dibinisa, 
Dinatadmo, Dinapiqui y Tarigtig. 

Destrito del Principe. — Points: Delgada, del Encanto, Dicapilarin, 
Diba} T abay, Diotoring y Dicapinisan. 

Nueva Ecija. — Points: Sua, Sapio y Deseada. 

Distrito de la Infanta. — Points: Inaguican y Tacligan. 

Tayabas. — Points: Piapi, Saley, Malazos, Pilisan, Majabibujaguin, 
Pangao, Maguigtig, Minanucan, Camu, Roma, Panjan, Pangao y 
Dapdap. 



168 REPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Ambos Camarines. — Points: Mapinjor, Palapinuhuajan, Jesus, Pi- 
nagdungan, Calibigaho, Malugnon, Buluagan, Manin, Sauan, Longos, 
Tanoban, Buncalon, Sagcadoc, Manuse, Pambuan, Taron, Sihan, Colasi, 
Sapenitan, Quinabucasan, Dagdagun, Tambang, Tinajuagan, Pana- 
honga, Pandanog, Batabato, Rungus, Maulao, Asuang y Sibauan. 

Albay. — Points: Gorda, Entilan, Misibis, Mainonon, Bato, Cana- 
gaayan, Cogbalisay, Pinagbucan, Cauit, Paran, Calaocalao, Bongo, 
Jesus y Gajo. 

Isla Cacraray. — Points: Tumaras, Sauras, Cabadia, Cacraray y 
Damacan. 

Isla Batdn. — Points: Camisog, Calanagan, NaualangpaW, Bucton 
y Binalbagan. 

Isla Bapurrapu.— Points: Acal, Mamanao, Talisay, Ungay y Baba- 
3^on, en el extremo mas occidental. 

Sorsogon. — Points: Paguiriran, Bingay, Montufar, Dancalan, Banga 
o Cagan, Tang, Dongon, Binorongan, Talagio, Paeahan o Habang, 
Pandan y Caranhan. 

SOUTH COAST. 

Sorsogon. — Points: Babulgan, Langao, Sual, Tajiran, Anambogon, 
Cabaranan, Lipata, Barugo, Marinap, Angil, Saban, Nungay, Quina- 
lapan, Inacanan, Ibalong, Mantag, Bagalao, Macugil, Caguavan. 
Tubiajon, Roja, Alimpayo, Bantique y Dumaquit. 

Albay. — Points: Marigondon, Cadburanan o Panganiran, Badian, 
Tobian, Naga, Cananhalan, Sinlian y Palo. 

Ambos Camarines. — Points: Caurusan o Siruma, Tongon, Jamuraon, 
Sibono, Tanuan, Buri, Bagulayo, Galvane}^ y Octoc. 

Tayabas.- — Points: Cabasbatan, Mambulao, Cabunganan, Quilbait, 
Ausan, Balogo, Calimu, Capuluan, Lian, Guihalinan, Gorda, Pusgo, 
Bahay, Arena, Pasangahan, Bondog, Pinamuntangan, Subunguin, 
Cagumu, Lipata, Pasil, Mulanay, Cuyaeub, Ajus, Nanpulo, Sandoval, 
Tuquian, Mabio, Salincapaoraan, Malatandan, Anda} T an, Tinabagsan, 
Pinacapulan, Palaspas, Angat, Bocboc y Ta} T abas. 

Batangas. — Points: Bantigui, Locoloco o Sigayan, Malagundi o 
Galban, Punas o Loboo, Malabrigo, Rosario, Talajib, Arenas, Mato- 
cot, Pinamucan, Pangot, Mapilio, Mainit, Cazador, Azufrc, Bonete, 
Malatanguit, Magallanes, Ligpo y San Pedrino. 

SOUTHWEST COAST. 

Batangas. — Points: Talin, San Diego y de Fuego o Calayo. 



ARCHIPELAGOES <)E BATANES AND BABUYANES AM) ISLAM'S OF 
POLILLO AND OATANDUANES. 

BAYS. 

ARCHIPELAGO OF BATANES. 

Santo Dommgo. This bay is situated on the west coast of (he island 
of Batan. It lias good anchoring grounds of line sand and coral. 

Sonson mid Mo minion. On the northeast coast of the same island 
there arc also two very deep and probably very sheltered bays called 
Sonson and Mananion. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 169 

COYES. 



Matacon. — The cove of Matacon is formed almost in the middle 01 
the north coast of the island of Polillo. 

Pinavisagan. — This is another small bay on the north coast of Polillo, 
situated a little more to the east than the previous one. 

CATANDUANES. 

Carao or Carabao. — The larger of the two small bays which are 
formed to the northwest of the island of Catanduanes, between points 
Carabao and Caramuan, is called Carao or Carabao. 

Cabugao. — Is another small bay which opens on the south of the 
same island. 

PORTS AND ANCHORAGES. 

BABUYANES. 

Fuga. — The port of Fuga is situated between the western extremity 
of the island of this name and two small, low adjacent islands called 
Bari and Mabac. 

CATANDUANES. 

Baras. — The little port of Baras is found on the southwest coast of 
the island of Catanduanes, some 9 miles to the northeast of the point 
Nagumbuayan. 

POINTS. 

ISLAND OP POLILLO. 

The principal points of the island of Polillo are those of Panam- 
palan, Banta, and Agla. 

CATANDUANES. 

In the island of Catanduanes there are worthy of mention points 
Pandan and Carao on the north, Anajao and Pandaran on the east, 
Nagumbua}^an, Taguntum, and Agojo on the south, and those of Sialat, 
Cogon, and Ilacaong on the west. 

MINDORO AND ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

BAYS AND COVES. 

NORTH COAST OF MINDORO. 

Ahra de Hog. — The cove of Abra de Hog has a low shore and a semi- 
circular form. 

Balateros Grande. — The bay of Balateros Grande is found 1 mile to 
the east of the little port of Minolo. 

Balateros Chico. — This cove is found immediately to the east of the 
preceding one. 

Varadero. — The cove of Varadero is 2 short miles to the southwest 
of point Escarceo. 



170 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

SuIhkukj. — The cove of Subaang lies to the west of the point of this 
name. 

Calapan. — The cove of Calapan extends between points Baliti to the 
southwest and Calapan or Tibao on the northeast, and is some 3 miles 
in extent. 

Pola, — The cove of Pola is formed to the northwest of Mount 
Dumali, between points Anahaoan and Da} x ap. 

Dayaj). — Is an elbow situated at some 6 cables to the southwest of 
the point of this name. 

EAST COAST. 

Mansalay. — The small bay of this name is found 10 J miles to the 
north of Point Bu} T allao. 

Pinamalay an.— The bay of Pinamalayan is located south of the 
northeast extremity of the island, between points Balete and Dumali. 

SOUTH COAST. 

Pandarochan. — The ba} r of Pandarochan is inclosed between the 
clear and accessible point of Buruncan, the southern extremity of the 
island, and the southeast point of Ylin. 

Bulalacao. — The cove of Bulalacao opens between point Tambilambi, 
to the west, and the peninsula of Pandan to the south southeast. 

Logidcay. — The bay of Loguicay lies between the peninsula of 
Pandan and the south coast of Point Buyallao. 

WEST COAST. 

Paluan. — The cove of Paluan is situated south of Mount Calavite. 
between points Pantocomi and Marigil. It has a good depth at the 
entrance and better in the interior up to a half mile from shore. 

Tubile. — The small bay of Tubile is found north of the point of the 
same name. 

Maniburao. — There is a little elbow toward the left within the mouth 
of the river of this name. 

Pandan. — The cove of Pandan is north of the point of this name. 

Dongon. — Some 7 miles south of Sablayan is the prominent point of 
Dongon, and to the east and northeast of it the coast forms the little 
bay of the same name which can shelter all kinds of ships. 

Iriron. — The cove of Iriron is inclosed between points Iriron and 
Lumintan. 

Lalangan or Gomez. — The cove of this name is formed near the 
middle of the channel of Ylin. 

MARINDUQUE. 

Several small bays are found on the coast of Marinduque near San 
Andres, Santa Cruz, and Trapichihan, opposite the small barren islands 
of Engano. 

Loog. The hay of Loog is within the harbor called Port of Bana- 
calan or San Andres. 

Marlcmga. The small bay of Marlanga lies between the point of 
this name and thai of Saloniague. 

Calancan and Scvyao. The cove of Sayao is on the western coast 
and thai of Calancan on tin 1 eastern coast of Point Trapichihan. 






REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. l7l 

LUBANG GROUP. 

Balaquias. — The cove of Balaquias is situated to the west of the 
island of Ambil and ends on the east at Point Tagbanan. 

Ancaguayan. — The little bay of Ancaguayan, situated on the east 
coast of Lubang and formed by points Napula and Antipolo, is shel- 
tered from all winds but those from the east northeast to the west 
southwest and is protected from the sea by several reefs. 

Loog. — The cove of Loog is situated near the southeastern end of 
the island of Lubang, inclosed between points Panican on the south 
and Tumbaga on the north, and looks like a beautiful bay, but it is 
very dangerous on account of the many ledges of rock hidden in it. 

Tabag. — The small bay of Tabag is 1 mile to the northeast of Point 
Acagasan. 

SEMERARA GROUP. 

The west coast of the island of Semerara forms some bays up to 
Point Taboan. There is another cove to the southeast of said point. 

The bay formed on the west coast of the island of Caluya is worthy 
of notice. 

CALAMIANES GROUP. 

Baquit. — The bay of Baquit, which opens on the south coast of 
Busuanga, the largest island of the group, deserves to be mentioned. 

Lucayan. — Next to the bay of Baquit, to the W., is formed the cove 
of Lucayan. 

Coron. — The name Ba}^ of Coron is given to the extensive ba} T formed 
by Coron on the east, Busuanga on the north, Culion on the W., and 
the small islands Dunaun, Tempel, and Bulalacao on thesouth. It is 
some 13 miles wide. 

CUYOS GROUP. 

There is scarcely any bay of importance in the Cuyos group, because 
all the islands of this group are small. 

PORTS AND ANCHORAGES. 

NORTH COAST OF MINDORO. 

Calamte.—To the north of the point of this name is a good 
anchorage. 

Ambil.— To the south of Point Binuanga there is formed an elbow 
or bay, in front of which is one of the best anchorages on this coast. 

Minolo.— The anchorage of Minolo opens immediately to the east of 
the point of this name. 

Galera.— The so-called port of Galera opens If miles to the west of 
Point Escarceo. 

Varadero.— The cove of Varadero is some 2 miles to the southwest 
of Point Escarceo and opens toward the southeast. It is an excellent 
anchorage in all weather, except in the case of a severe storm passing 
very near on the south. It is much preferable to the port of Galera. 

JVaujan.— To the southeast of the mouth of the river of this name 
there is an anchorage for all sorts of craft. 



172 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



EAST COAST. 



Man. — Opposite the river Masi there is an anchorage in the angle 
which Point Bongabon forms to the northwest. It is excellent in all 
weather and for all sorts of ships. 



SOUTH COAST. 

. This coast has neither ports nor anchorages of sufficient importance 
to be worth mentioning, unless there are some for small boats. 

WEST COAST. 

Mamburao. — A fair anchorage opposite the mouth of the river 
Mamburao. 

Sahlayan. — The anchorage of Sablayan lies to the east of Point 
Pandan. 

Mangarin. — The port of Mangarin is found north of the strait of 
Ylin and some 3 miles to the southeast of Point Busuanga. It is very 
sheltered and quite deep. 

MARINDUQUE. 

San Andres or Banacalan. — The port of San Andres, open toward 
the west, lies between points Antagtacan on the north and Panumitan- 
gan on the south. 

Santa Cruz. — The port of Santa Cruz is to the southeast of the point 
of the same name. 

Marlanga. — The anchorage of Marlanga is in the bay of the same 
name. 

Boac. — The anchorage of Boac is near the river of this name, to the 
southwest of the fortress of Boac. 

YLIN GROUP. 

Ylin. — The anchorage of Ylin is in front of a reef which surrounds 
the coast of Ylin. 

SEMERARA CROUP. 

Cahiya. — Anchor may be cast to the north of the island of Caluya, 
in the large cove of this name. 

The other ports and anchorages of the group arc not especially 
important. 

CALAMIANKS CROUP. 

Borac. — The port of Borac, in the island of Busuanga. is extensive 
and sheltered. 

CAPES AND POINTS. 

NORTH COAST OK MINDORO. 

Catamite. — Cape Calavite is well known among mariners, because it 
is on the point of tin 1 island which extends farthest into the China Sea. 

Following the coast from Point Calavite toward the east there are 
p ound successively the points of Binuangan, Monte or San Tomas, 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 173 

Bagalayag, Baeto, Baguio, Minolo, Escarceo, Boaya, Calupan, Bisayan, 
Lubang, Balete, Calapan, Anaganahao, Tagusan, Balingauan, Ana- 
haoan, Dayap, and Dumali. 

EAST COAST. 

From Point Dumali, situated to the northeast of the island, going 
down toward the south there are to be mentioned points Pinamalayan, 
Balete, Mayllague, Bongabon, Dayagan, Ticlin or Alaya, Mansiol, 
Colasi, Bayallao, and Pandan. 

SOUTH COAST. 

Points Burunean, Canimanet, and Tambilambi. 

WEST COAST. 

Points Pantocomi, Marigil, Tubile, Caranisan, Manburao, Talabasi, 
Sablayan, Dongon, Lumintan, and Busuanga. 

MARINDUQUE. 

The following are the points of Marinduque: San Andres, Silangan, 
Panumitangan, Datinuana, Cauit, Catalo, Suban, Marlanga, Panique, 
Cabuyoc, Cagpoc, Salomague, Tasa, and Trapichihan. 

LUBANG GROUP. 

Tilig, Naguionea, Pinagdaga} T an, Nanoc, Tumbaga, and Antucao are 
the principal points of this group. 

YLIN GROUP. 

In the Ylin group, those of Ylin and Calanyanan. 

ISLAND OF SEMERARA. 

Points Tungao, Tabonan, Macapdos, Talisay, Pasal, and Alimanda. 
ISLANDS OF BUKIAS, MASBATE, AND TICAO. 
BAYS AND COVES. 

In the canal which extends between Burias and Busin there are some 
bays which afford good anchorage. The bay which opens upon the 
eastern coast, south of Point Tinamandagan, 5 miles from the port 
of Busainga, is worthy of mention. The small bay of Alimango, 
which is quite deep, is on the western coast. 

MASBATE. 

The northern coast of Masbate has a number of ba}^s affording good 
anchorage. 

Asid. — The bay of Asid, situated between Point Pulanauta on the 
west and Point Bary Chico on the east, is the most important one of 
Masbate. 



174 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

TICAO. 

Taguan. — The cove of Taguan lies 7-J- miles southeast of Punta del 
Diablo (Devil's Point). 

Ticao. — The bay of Ticao is 5j miles south of the port of San 
Jacinto. 

Blton. — The cove of Biton opens 3 miles south of the bay of Ticao. 

PORTS AND ANCHORING GROUNDS. 



Basin. — The port of Busin is formed by the northern end of Burias 
and the island of Busin; it is merely a deep channel. 

Busaingu. — The port of Busainga opens 3^ miles southeast of the 
port of Busin, and is also formed by a channel. 

MASBATE. 

Barrera. — The port of Barrera is very large, and affords safe 
anchorage. 

Magdalena. — The port of Magdalena is situated 9 miles south of the 
foregoing one. 

Palanog — The port of Palanog opens G miles southeast of the port 
of Magdalena; it is small, but deep, and is protected against all winds. 

TICAO. 

San Miguel. — The port of San Miguel is situated at the northern 
end of the island. 

San Jacinto. — The port of San Jacinto is situated 3 miles south of 
the cove o+! Taguan, and opens eastward with good anchoring ground. 
In the times of Acapulco this port was a stopping place for vessels. 

POINTS. 

BURIAS. 

Among other points there are on the island of Burias the following: 
Norte or Colorada, Cueva, Guinduganan, Sur, Tinamandagan, and 
Dapdap. 

MASBATE. 

On the island of Masbate there are the following principal points: 
Bugui, CJnutat, Mariveles, Oamasusu, Jintotolo, Pulanauta, Fangca- 
nauay, Jangan, Bato, Balabao, Bary Chico, Naindain, Nauco, Cadu- 
ruan, del Este, Malibago, Tiguijan, Tabunan, Marintoc, Sagausauan, 
Bagubaud, Capandan, and Colorada. 



Ticao has the following points: San Miguel. Noroeste, Talisay, Nil- 
adlaran, Lagundi, San Rafael, Lagan, and Tasiran. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 175 

CHAPTER II. 
BISAYA ISLANDS. 

ROMBLON ARCHIPELAGO. 
PRINCIPAL ISLANDS OF THE GROUP. 

The principal islands of the Rornblon Archipelago are the islands of 
Romblon, Tablas, Banton," Maestre de Campo, and Sibuyan. 

BAYS AND COVES. 

From the islet of Bagud, southwest from the port of Romblon, the 
coast runs 2i miles southward, forming three small coves, of which 
the first two are of no importance, and the most southerly one is fairly 
good. From this last the coast runs in a south-southeast direction and 
forms two other coves. 

SIBUYAN. 

Magallanes. — The cove of Magallanes is comprised between the points 
of Consumala and Cang-ouac, the river Nailog pouring into its center. 
Lubug. — The bay of Lubug is situated northeast of the island. 

BANTON. 

The island of Banton possesses three good cov r es, one on the eastern 
coast, one on the northeastern, and another small one on the western 
coast. 



On the island of Tablas, from Point Origon to the cliffs on the side 
of Mount Noroeste, two coves are formed, and also another south of 
said cliffs. 

Calaton. — The cove of Calaton is formed by the point bearing the 
same name, by the islets lying 2 miles south-southwest, and by a small 
point of hidden rocks on the north. 

Tabolotan. — The cove of Tabolotan is situated directly south of the 
northeastern point of Tablas. 

PORTS AND ANCHORING GROUNDS. 

ROMBLON. 

The port of Romblon, one of the best of Bisayas, is situated north- 
east of the island bearing the same name. The island of Lugbung, 
situated at a short distance from this port, defends its two sheltered 
and deep anchoring grounds. 



Odiungan. — The harbor of Odiungan is situated southeast of the 
cove which is formed by Point Bagulayan on the western coast. 



176 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Loog. — On this same western coast is the port of Loog, between 
two points which are very close to each other and are on the same 
meridian. 

Sdbang. — Sabang is a small port situated north and west of Calaton 
Point on the western coast. 

MAESTRE DE CAMPO. 

Southwest of the island of Maestre de Campo there is a sheltered 
harbor protected against all winds except the southwesterly ones. 

POINTS. 



The following points are to be found on the island of Romblon: 
Tongo and Lantian on the north; Cabog, Naya, and Sablayan on the 
east; Apunan on the south, and San Pedro and Bombon on the west. 



On the island of Tablas there are the following points: Calaton. Cer- 
vera, del Este, and Pineda on the east; Origon on the north; Sangilan, 
Bagula} r an, Cabaccongan, and Inanayan on the west, and el Sur or 
Cabalian on the southern end of the island. 

MAESTRE DE CAMPO. 

The point of La Concepcion on this island is worthy of mention. 



The principal points on the island of Sibuyan are: Ipil. Bayarin, 
Cang-ouac, Canglonbog, Consumala, and Padulog. all along the south- 
ern coast; on the eastern coast, Majiuat, Cambulayan, Cambrian, and 
Canjalon; on the southern end of the island, Point Cauit; and on the 
western coast, Cansapal, Apiat, Bolabos, and Agutay. 

PANAY AND ADJACKXT ISLANDS. 

BAYS AM) COVES. 

NORTHERN COAST OF PANAY. 

Naisot. — The cove of Naisot is comprised between points Ibajay and 
Sigat or Mabgaran. 

Pontud.- The so-called hay of Pontud is situated opposite the hank 
of Pontud and is comprised between points Sigat and Apga-Sapian. 

Sapicm.- The cove of Sapian opens between Point Baquiao and the 
land strait of Sapian. 

Cajriz. The cove of Capiz, also called Capiz Harbor, is comprised 
between Point Nailon on the west and Point Colasi on the east. 

From Point Nagtig to Point Bulacaue a large bay o\' more than 18 
milt s in length and :♦ miles in width is formed toward Mount Agudo. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 177 

EASTERN COAST. 

Bancal. — The cove of Bancal runs from the cliffs of Cambaloton 
south-southeast of point Bulacaue to point Gogo, which is situated 4i 
miles more to the south. 

There are various unimportant coves to be found from point Gogo 
totheTugil "Silanga." 

Balad. — The cove of Balad would be the principal one of these were 
it not obstructed by hidden rocks. 

The bay which is formed to the west of the island of Tagubanhan, 
on the coast of Panay, is an important one. 

The bay of Canas is the most important one of those which are to be 
found on the eastern coast of Panay. 

WESTERN COAST. 

South of Point Dalipe there is a cove of fair conditions. 

Pandan. — The cove of Pandan is almost the only one which may be 
called such on the western coast of Panay. It is formed south of the 
promontory of Naso, and is situated between points Pucio and Lipata; 
it is clear, has steep banks, depth of waters, and is not sheltered. 

ISLAND OF GUIMARAS. 

Igan. — The bay of Igan opens south of the port of Santa Ana and 
contiguous to it, on the island of Guimaras, and is situated between 
Point Ganga on the north and Point Guinad on the south, and is the 
most important one on this island. 

PORTS AND ANCHORING GROUNDS. 

NORTHERN COAST OF PANAY. 

Batan.— The port of Panan is situated 10 miles southeast of the bar 
of Acdan; it is deep, but the entrance to it is bad. 

Capiz. — The harbor of Capiz may be either the one which is oppo- 
site to the church of the village of Capiz, or the one which is opposite 
to the bar of the river. 

EASTERN COAST. 

Estancla. — The harbor of Estancia is situated north of the Bay as. 
Iloilo. — The harbor of Iloilo is situated between the two bends 
formed by the river at its mouth. 

WESTERN COAST. 

Buruanga. — On the coast comprised between points Naisog and 
Pucio there is another point called Point Batuit, which separates two 
small harbors; that of Buruaga is the better. 

San Jose de Buenavista. — The harbor of San Jose de Buenavista is 
situated south of Point Dalipe. 

ISLAND OF GUIMARAS. 

Santa Ana. — The port of Santa Ana is a small port, clear and 
deep, opening to the west. 



178 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



POINTS. 

NORTHERN COAST OF PANAY. 



All along the northern coast, from west to east, are to be found in 
succession points Naisog, Tabun, Saboncogon, Tabicu, Ibajay, Sigat 
or Mabgaran, Apga, Aclan, Nailon, Colasi, Nipa, Pirara, Pinalabuan, 
and Bulacaue on the northeastern end of the island. 



EASTERN COAST. 



On the eastern coast points Gogo and Tabunan are worthy of men- 
tion. 



SOUTHERN COAST. 



On the southern coast points Mulactin, Bugnayon, Caducdula, and 
Siaran are worthy of mention. 



WESTERN COAST. 



Commencing at the southwestern end of the island and continuing 
toward the north the following points are to be found in the order as 
named: Naso, Aniniy, Jagdan, Mapatag, Tubigon, Dalipe, Lipata, 
Picol, and Pucio. 



ISLAND OF GUIMARAS. 



On the island of Guimaras the following points are worthy of men- 
tion: Cabugao on the north, Lusaran on the south, and Ginad, Ganga, 
Bondulan, and Cabulic on the west. 

ISLAND OF NEGROS. 
BAYS AND COVES. 

NORTHERN COAST. 

On the northern coast of Negros there is scarcely an}^ cove worthy 
of being mentioned. The so-called Saco de Negros is formed on the 
north of the island, and is bounded on the west by the group of the 
island of Pan de Azucar and the southern part of the group of Gigantes, 
and on the east by the island of Bantayan and the chain of small islands 
which, starting from the last named, runs southwest to the northeastern 
end of Negros. 

EASTERN COAST. 

A cove of fair depth extends from Point Ocre to Point Ticlin. At 
a distance of 1£ miles north from Point Ticlin the coast forms another 
small cove, with an islet in front of it. 

Bais, — The cove of Bais — that is to say, the one which is opposite 
the Bais islands — is comprised between Points Teca on the north and 
Canamay on the south. 

Ca/pca/p and Tutufran. — The coves of Capcap and Tutuban are sit- 
uated on (he southern end of the island. Ihey are small, but possess 
good conditions. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 179 

SOUTHWESTERN COAST. 

Tolon.— The spacious cove of Tolon runs between points Cauitan 
and Cansilan. 

Oompomanes. — The cove of Comporuanes opens south of Point Matu- 
tindog and next to it. 

JVabulao. — The cove of Nabulao is situated south of the preceding 
one, at the mouth of the river of the same name. 

Catmon. — The bay of Catmon is situated between points Catmon 
and Bacuyangan. 

Sipaluy and Cartagena. — The coves of Sipaluy and Cartagena are 
situated next to that of Saban. 

Linaon. — The bay of Linaon opens between points Sojoton and 
Maguiliquian. 

WESTERN COAST. 

Only the large bend formed on this coast south of the island of Gui- 
maras and which ends at Point Sojoton is worthy of mention. 

PORTS AND ANCHORING GROUNDS. 

NORTHERN AND EASTERN COASTS. 

There are on the northern and eastern coasts of Negros some unim- 
portant harbors. 

SOUTHERN COAST. 

Siyt. — The port of Siyt is situated on the southern end of the island; 
it" is small, but clear, with good anchoring grounds, and sheltered. 

Bomhonon. — The port of Bombonon opens at about 2 miles south- 
west of the port of Siyt, on the southern end of the island. 

Tolon. — -In the river or cove of Tolon vessels of light draft can 
anchor at high tide. 

POINTS. 

NORTHERN COAST. 

The principal points on the northern coast are: Points Guimugahan, 
Talisa}^, Sagay or Carey, and Panagsagon, on the northwestern end of 
the island. 

EASTERN COAST. 

On the eastern coast there are the following points: Bito, Mueabog, 
Ocre, Ticlin, Tabon, Jilaitin, Panay, San Jose, Tayasan, Manjuyod, 
Palompon, Canamay, Arabian, Tayba, Sibulan, Dumaguete, Bacong, 
Dauin, Magabo, Zamboanguita, Liza, Siyt, and Bombonon. 

SOUTHERN COAST. 

On the southern coast are: Point Siaton, the southernmost one on 
the island; Cauitan, Cansilan, Matutindog, Sanque, Taliptipan, Bala- 
tong, Doog, Bolila, Catmon, Bacuyangan, Luinbia, and Obon. 

WESTERN COAST. 

On the western coast are Points Manoban, Maguiliquian, Sojoton, 
Gabambalang, Bula, Bilad, Calasian, Bacong, Magsalin, Maquiliquili, 
and Tomanton, 



180 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

ISLAND OF CEBU. 
BAYS AND COVES. 

EASTERN COAST. 

Bago. — The cove of Bago is situated 13 miles south-southeast of 
Point Bulalaqui. It is formed by a bend made by the coast, which 
runs toward the east with Point Nailon. 

There are also to be found inflections of the coast on the north of 
Point Bantolinao, between Points Sacaan and Catmon; north of Point 
Danao, between Points Cotcot and Bagacay or Liloan; on the north- 
west of the island of Mactan, south of Cebu, between Points Carear 
and Sibonga, and south of Point Dalaguete. 

WESTERN COAST. 

Daijagon. — The bay bearing this name is comprised between Point 
Daijagon on the north and Point Magtulinog on the south. 

Tuburan. — The cove of Tuburan, of little importance, is 5i miles 
distant south-southwest of the cove of Batauan. 

Languyon. — The bend or small cove of Languyon is 1 mile south of 
Point Tuburan. 

Balamban. — The cove of Balamban opens south of the Point of 
Balamban. 

Calavera. — The cove of Calavera is a small cove south-southwest of 
the cove of Balamban. 

Pinamungajan.— The small cove of Pinamungajan is half wa}^ between 
Points Tajao and Gorda. 

Barili. — The cove of Barili is 3i miles south-southwest of Point 
Gorda. 

Badian. — The cove of Badian is situated between the peninsula of 
Copton and another point of land which advances about 2 miles also 
to the north, called Point Badian. 

Matutinao. — The cove of Matutinao is situated between Point Badian 
on the north and Point Guiuanon on the south, the distance between 
these being 6 miles. 

PORTS AND ANCHORING GROUNDS. 

EASTERN COAST. 

Bugut. — The small port of Bugut is nearly on the north. 3 miles 
distant from Point Caladman. 

Cebu. — The harbor of Cebu is situated south -southwest of the fort 
of Cebu. 

Cauit. — The port of Cauit opens on the cove of Cauit toward the 
north. 

Tmaan. — The harbor of Tinauo is situated 11 miles southwest of 
Cebu. 

Carear. — At the bend of Carear there is a fairly good, small port. 

Boljoan. The port or harbor of BoIJOOD is situated at the bend of 
this same name. 

Canoan. — The port of Canoan is formed at the cove of Canoan. It 
is sheltered from all winds except the winds from the northwest to 
the west. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 181 

WESTERN COAST. 

Batauan. — The port of Batauan is a little more than 2 miles distant 
south of the river Jaligue. 

Buenahrigo. — On the southern side of the point of this name ves- 
sels can find sufficient shelter when at anchor. 

Calavera. — Vessels can also find anchorage in the cove of this name. 

Badian. — There is an anchorage south of the island in the cove of 
the village of Badian. 

POINTS. 

Along the eastern coast, from the northern end, there are the fol- 
lowing points: Bulalaqui, Campatoc, Malontod, Tindug, Nailon, 
Maitum, Ulud, Pamoboan, Bantulu or Bantolinao, Manayaosayao, 
Jimuguit Sacaan, Catmon, Panalipan, Binuncalan, Danao, Lusun- 
sacatao, Bandiloan Cotcot, Bagacay or Liloan, Cauit, Lipata, Pan- 
guian (island of Mactan), Tinaan, Minaga, Carcar, Sibonga, Simala, 
Argao, Balatic, Dalaguete, Bugo, Ilijan, Samang, Cayangon, Landu- 
gan, Oslob, and Tanon, southwestern end of the island. 

WESTERN COAST. 

The principal points on the western coast, commencing at the north, 
are: Tapilon, Bantique, Cauit, Isabel, Mancao, Aniningan, Tagjalique 
or Jaligue, Batauan, Bagasaue, Languyon, Carmelo, Jinampangon, 
Bagacaua, Buenabrigo or Guinabasan, TJag, Balamban, Buanoy, Jino- 
lauan, Tajao, Gorda, Japitan, Palalon, Jacbas, Minalos, Bitoon, Tan- 
guil, Dumanjuc, Copton, Tongo, Badian (Bilambilam), Guiuanon, 
Bulalacao, Malboc, Looc, Colasi, and Liloan, on the southern end of 
the island. 

BOHOL AND ADJACENT ISLANDS. 
BAYS AND COVES. 

NORTHERN COAST OF BOHOL. 

The northern coast of this island is very dangerous, as it is nearly 
all obstructed by the coral banks of Danajon. 

EASTERN COAST. 

Tintiman. — The cove of Tintiman is formed west of the island bear- 
ing this name. 

Coblon. — The cove of Coblon opens north of the peninsula of Puga- 
tin and contiguous to it. 

Guindidman. — The small peninsula of this name forms at its south- 
ern part the cove of Guindulman. 

SOUTHERN COAST. 

On the southern coast there are formed at the mouths of the rivers 
small coves, which are of no importance. 

Guinaguanan.— This cove is formed by the western point of the 
mouth of the river Loay. 

p c— vol 3—01 19 



182 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



WESTERN COAST. 



Maribojoc. — The cove of Maribojoc is formed by a bend of the east- 
ern coast of Point Cruz. 

Catagbacan. — The cove bearing this name is formed by the islands 
of Cabilao, Sandingan, Calape, and part of the coast of Bohol. 

ISLAND OF PANGLAO. 

Panglao. — The cove of Panglao is situated southwest of the island of 
Panglao. 

ISLAND OF SIQUIJOR. 

Canoan. — The cove of Canoan, on the island of Siquijor, which we 
consider as the group of Bohol, is situated 3 miles south of Point San- 
dugan. It is the principal one of this island. 

PORTS AND ANCHORING GROUNDS. 

ISLAND OF BOHOL. 

Calape. — The small port of Calape is situated on the most southerly 
part of the cove of Catagbacan, formed by the islands of Calape and of 
Bohol. 

Laon. — Vessels can anchor at the so-called Muelle de Laon, in the 
cove formed by said Muelle together with the island of Sandingan. 

The southern coast of Bohol has man}^ bends which can serve as 
anchoring grounds, although the entrance thereto is difficult. Vessels 
can also anchor in the coves of Guindulman and Coblon. 

POINTS. 

ISLAND OF BOHOL. 

The following are the principal points in the island of Bohol: Corte, 
Tabigui, Amol, and Acha on the north; Libas, Namuco, Agio, Quinal, 
and Napacao on the east; Cabantian, Nauco, Campao, Cantagay, 
Gorda, Magay, and Loay on the south, and Cruz and Lauis on the 
west. 

ISLAND OF PANGLAO. 

On the island of Panglao the most noteworthy points are: Catadman, 
Biquin, Bolud, Tahuruc, and Duljo. 

ISLAND OF SIQUIJOR. 

The most noteworthy points on the island of Siquijor are: Canoan, 
Sandugan, Lumancapa, and Lumango on the north: Tubintin, Daquit, 
and Minatulan on the east; Tonga and Basigajen on the west, and 
Cambalaguio, Bagacay, and Canaba on the south. 

SAMAR AND ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

HARBORS, HAYS, AND COVES. 

Northwestern and northern coasts of samar. 

Tinagutma/n. This cove is situated 2 miles from the river Mobo. 

Balicuatro. The cove of Balicuatro is formed between the point 
bearing (hat name on the West and the point surrounded by hidden 
rocks, which Is 7 miles distant to the East. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 183 

Laguan. — The cove of Laguan is situated between Point Libas and 
the western coast of the island of Laguan. 

EASTERN COAST. 

Gumay. — The so-called cove of Gumay is situated between points 
Lila on the north and Alibangbang on the south. 

Oras. — The cove of Oras is west of Point Tiguias. 

Ipil. — Near the place called Ipil a small bay opens, formed by points 
Casanga\^an on the north and Tambadon on the south. 

Sulat. — The cove of Sulat is 6 miles distant from the foregoing one. 

San Julian. — Near the south of Sulat is the cove or bay of San 
Julian. 

£ or ong an.— The cove of Borongan is south of the foregoing one. 

Bayacan. — The cove of Bayacan is some 3 miles south of Borongan. 

Pambujan. — The splendid bav of Pambujan is situated between 
points Bura and Matarinao. 

SOUTHERN COAST. 

There are several bends at the end of the island, the most remark- 
able of which is that of Guiuan. In the direction of the west-north- 
west there are others of less importance as far as the Bay of San 
Pedro and San Pablo. 

WESTERN COAST. 

Beyond the strait of San Juanico, toward the north, are the bays of 
Laguin, Villareal, and Cambutatay, the harbor of Maqueda, and the 
cove of Calbayog. 

Laguin. — The bay of Laguin opens east of the southern end of the 
island of Daram. 

Villareal. — The bay of Villareal extends toward the northeast of the 
foregoing. 

Maqueda. — The bay of Maqueda extends into and toward the north- 
east of the island of Buad. 

Cambutatay. — Northwest of Catbalogan is the bay of Cambutatay. 

Calbayog. — South of this village there is a bend or cove northeast of 
the island of Limbancauayan. 

CAPES AND POINTS. 

NORTHERN COAST OF SAMAR. 

From west to east there are: Points Sacalagayan, Simoga, Balicu- 
atro, Malubaroc, Bugtu, Oot or Lauigan, Caradapat, Ocan or Binay, 
Maujud, Sila, Pagsanhan, Alibangbang, Pangpang, Binugayan, and 
the cape of Espiritu Santo. 

EASTERN COAST. 

From north to south there are the following points: Tiguias, Ugbun, 
Casangayan, Tambadon, Tugasan, Sulat, Cambista, Paninihian, Anito, 
Sorongon, Guinanuc, Capines, Anitagipan, Tabay, Haba, Panadlihan, 
Bura, Matarinao, Burac, Asgad, Pinanamitan, Hognaya, Bagton, Bauas, 
and Sungi, at the southern end. 



184 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



SOUTHERN COAST. 



From east to west the following points are worthy of mention: 
Ban ago, Pamanpangon, Cabanian, Baras, Bobon, Cabarasan, Higoso, 
Sua or Dapo, Paglalaongan, Capines, Amangbuale, Cabalagnan, Odoc, 
Panaj^, Guintulan, and Tingib. 



WESTERN COAST. 

From the southern entrance of the strait of San Juanico, in a north- 
erly direction, are points Binuntuan, Cabugauan, Dalugdug, Manalumo, 
Binatac, Cujao, Irong-irong, Hibatan, Tactac, Malayoc, Maglalabon, 
and Polauit, near the northwestern end. 

ISLAND OF DARAN. 

The most important points on this island are: Guindauan on the 
north; Cauayan, Madang, Tanagon, Catangdan, Amantarong, Asug, 
and Campilipa on the east; Remintao, Bacjao, Halaba Guinlatuyan, 
Cabadiancan, and Canan}^ong-Daco on the west. 

LEYTE AND ADJACENT ISLANDS. 



EASTERN COAST. 

Panaluran. — The beautiful cove of Panaluran is formed by the 
northern coast north of the small peninsula of Tacloban. 

Cancabato. — The cove of Cancabato is south of Tacloban. 

San Pedro and San Pablo. — The great harbor of San Pedro and 
San Pablo is one of the most capacious of the archipelago. It is 
formed by the southwestern coast of Samar and the eastern coast of 
Leyte. 

Camiris. — The cove of Camiris is situated north of Tanauan. 

Jaelugan. — The bay of Jaclugan is formed by the coast and a small 
peninsula which extends from south-southwest to north-northeast, east 
of Tanauan. 

Hinunangan. — The cove of Hinunangan opens south of the islands 
of Cabugan Grande and Cabugan Chico. 

SOUTHERN COAST. 

Sogod. — We call by this name the deep and spacious cove which 
opens south of Leyte, between points Taancan or Ninipo on the west 
and Mangayao on the east, on the Strait of Panaon. 

WKSTERN COAST. 

Tabin Chico <fn<l Tabin Grande. — The small coves of Tabin Chico 
and Tabin Grande arc separated by a small tongue of land which lies 
\) miles south of the northwestern end of Leyte. 

. r r<ih<nt</<> and Campopo. The bays of Tabango and Campopo arc at 
a distance of about »'> miles south of the foregoing. 

Dupon. The Bay of Dupon is situated between Point Sacay-Sacay 
on the northwest and Point ('ativonian on the southeast. 

Si,ij> t >n. The cove of Siapon opens 1 > miles east of the bay of 
Dupon. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 185 

From Siapon the coast runs southward without any noticeable inflex- 
ions, with the exception of the bends of San Agustin, Bay bay, Ino- 
pacan, Hilongos, and Cajagnaan, and that of Maasim on the southwest. 

ISLAND OF BILIRAN. 

The bays and coves of importance in the island of Biliran, situated 
north of Leyte, are those of Biloan, Baganitb, Inansugan, and Capalis. 

PORTS AND ANCHORING GROUNDS. 

COAST EAST OF LEYTE. 

t 

Liloan. — The port of Liloan is formed by the northern point of the 
island of Panaon and the southeast of Leyte. 

The harbors and ports which are to be found on the cove of Pana- 
luran or port of Tacloban are very good, as are also those on the cove 
of Cancabato, on the cove of Hinunangan and specially so the one on 
the large cove of Sogod. 

WESTERN COAST. 

Palompon. — The port of Palompon opens 14 miles south of Point 
Liglio. 

Dupon. — There is good anchorage in the bay bearing this name. 
Siapon. — There is also good anchorage in the bay of Siapon. 
Bello. — Port Bello opens on the western part of the bay of Ormoc. 

NORTHERN COAST. 

The northern coast of Leyte has been very imperfectly surveyed. 
It is probable that there are good anchoring grounds in the various 
bends of the large bay of Carigara. 

ISLAND OF BILIRAN. 

Biliran. — Vessels can anchor off this island at a distance of half a 
mile, opposite to the village of Biliran Nuevo. 

POINTS. 

NORTHERN COAST OF LEYTE. 

All along the northern coast from west to east there are the -follow- 
ing points in succession: Rabin or Caru3 r ucan,Villalon or Sugboncogon, 
Uson, Manoc, Bacjao, Bulacahui, Talairan, Pinagmupuan, Antipolo, 
Canumbao, Halaba, Baluarte, Odbo, Can-apug, Calugupan, Calba} r ogos, 
and Majinasu. 

EASTERN COAST. 

On the eastern coast the following are noteworthy, from north to 
south: Canotoc, Uban, Cauayan, Panirugan, Cataisan, Camiris, Amban, 
Marigatdan, Vigia, Liberanan, Tagbuc, Salacot, Taytay, Hinunucan, 
Odiong, Laguma, Patyacan, Ban dan, Malagusan, Sua, Hitumnog, and 
Marangay. 



186 KtiPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



SOUTHERN COAST. 



The southern coast is the one which most abounds in points. Among 
them are specially worthy of mention Points Mangayao, Bantigui, 
Naglon, Malatag, Lubo, Mayuga, Cauayan, Jubas, Cataluan, Calapo- 
can, Magalo, Hoangon, Sahuaon, Tamulayog, Taancan or Ninipo, 
Cantutuy, Higanligam, Bato, and Ubay. 

WESTERN COAST. 

On the western coast there are worthy of being mentioned, going 
from south to north, Points Panno, Taguus, Cantoto, Uman, Pontod, 
Calinauan, Cauampit, Bitanjuan, Panalian, Biasong, Nabanoc, Pagtail, 
Baglit, Bari, Sacay-Sacay, Bislutan, Duljugan, Binagmaan, Canauayan, 
Linganay, Pamangpangon, Quiohag, Can-apug, Blanca, Liglio, Baga- 
jupi, Tugas, Sangubon, Matungo, Daja-Diotay, Daja-Daco, Bagorayray, 
and Dungun. 

ISLAND OF BILIRAN. 

The island of Biliran has the following points: Pontado, Himbucgan, 
Mapuyo, Anas, Mambajab or Amangbahan, Mariquit, and Tanjas on 
the northern coast; Jabujab, Gamay, and Pauican, or Masog, on the 
eastern coast; Nuluncan, Matuntun, or Macogtong, and Magbugun, on 
the southern coast, and Catmon, Sabang, Bagonbog, Acta, and Sulung, 
on the western coast. 

ISLAND OF PANAON. 

The island of Panaon has also some remarkable points, such as Cala- 
pina, Caligangan, Bahag, Maoyo, Quinanad, Pinaghaua, Pinutan, 
Cainguin, Buhisan, Bilatan, and Botobolo, on the eastern coast; Ca} r - 
biran, Dinid, and Inolinan, on the southern coast, and Cogon, Panaon, 
Mabauha, Ilihan, Maclayauas, Bahay, and Cado-Ocan, on the western 
coast. 



CHAPTER III. 

MINDANAO AND ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

MINDANAO. 

BAYS. 

BuPucm. — The buy of Butuan is a spacious bay, opening to the 
north. It is ^1 miles wide and is situated between the lands of 
Madilao and Point Dinata. It is one of the best bays of Mindanao. 

Maccyalar. That of Macajalar is a vast open hay on the northwest, 
and is situated between Points (Jorda and Sulanan. 

Tligan. The magnificent bay of Iligan is a gulf, rectangular in 
shape, and opens exactly to (he north. 

Pcmguil, Thai of Panguil runs inward toward the southwest of the 
gulf or hay of Iligan. 

Great Bay of i liana. The Cxreal Hay of I liana extends from Point 
Flechas as far as Point Quidapil, southwest of Cotabato. It is the 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 187 

largest bay of Mindanao. It comprises the bays of Matubug, Paga- 
dian, Sigayan, Marga, and Carornata on the north, and those of Barras, 
Matimus, Lusayen, and Paranparan on the east. 

Sarangani. — The bay of Sarangani runs southward into the south- 
ernmost peninsula of Mindanao. 

Pujaga. — The ba} T of Pujaga, one of the best of the whole archi- 
pelago, is situated some 35 miles north of the Cape of San Agustin. 
It has about 10 miles in its greatest length from southeast to northwest, 
and is about 5 miles at its widest part. 

COVES AND BAYS. 

NORTHERN COAST. 

Murdelagos. — The cove of Murcielagos, which is very deep, opens 
between Point Bombon on the east and Point Silla on the west. 

Dapttan. — The bay of Dapitan is situated between Point Tagolo 
on the north and Point Sicayab on the south. It is 2 miles wide at 
its entrance and runs inward about 3 miles in a southwesterly direction. 

Gran Ensenada. — This name is given to the cove comprised between 
Points Sica} 7 ab and Blanca. 

Dauigan. — The cove bearing this name is comprised between Points 
Dauigan and Tabonan. 

Sindangan. — The ba} 7 of Sindangan is bounded on the east by Point 
Dauigan and on the west by Point Sindangan. 



WESTERN COAST. 



An important bay opens between Points Dulunquin and Piacan, 
about 17 miles south of the port of Santa Maria. 

Sibxcco. — The bay of Sibuco extends between Simbaguan and Pang- 



man, about 25 miles north of Zamboanga 



SOUTHERN COAST. 



Masingloc. — After turning the peninsula of Zamboanga toward the 
east and going along the coast of said peninsula, one finds south of 
Manicahan or Manicaan the small cove of Masingloc, west of the 
islands of Malanipa and Saccol. Inside of this bend is situated the 
small island of Vilanvilan. 

Sibuguey. — From the small bay of Masingloc the coast of Mindanao 
runs 53 miles to the north-northeast, and then turning it advances 
about 30 miles toward the south, forming the spacious bay of Sibuguey, 
which ends on the southeast at the island of Olutanga. The coasts of 
this bay are formed by a great many islands, and its points contain 
small ledges of hidden rocks. 

This ba} 7 has various bends or partial coves which are little known. 

Vitali or Bungao. — North of Point Vitali there opens a cove, which 
we call Yitali or Bungao, toward the middle of the eastern coast of 
the peninsula of Zamboanga. 

Dumanquilas. — The bay of Dumanquilas is comprised between the 
southern extremity of the island of Olutanga and Point Flechas or 
Baganian, about 30 miles east of the bay of Sibuguey. The most 
important bay it contains is that of Igat. 

Tantauang. — The bay of Tantauang is situated south of the penin- 
sula which is formed between the bays of Sibuguey and Dumanquilas. 



188 KEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Tumalung.— The bay of Tumalung opens north of the island of 
Olutanga. It is sheltered and has a good depth. 

Malicay. — The bay of Malicay is formed by Point Dumanquilas and 
the peninsula which ends at Point Flechas. 

Matubug. — The bay of Matubug is formed by Point Tambulian on 
the south and Dapulisan on the north. 

Linao. — The bay of Linao extends from Point Quidapil to Point 
Lebac. 

Tuna. — The cove of Tuna opens at about 6 miles south of Point 
Lebac. 

Casilaran. — The magnificent bay of Casilaran is situated on the west- 
ern coast of the large bay of Davao, after turning Point Calungan. 

Davao. — The large bay of Davao is comprised between Point Calian. 
on the eastern coast of the peninsula of Sarangani, and Point or Cape 
San Agustin, on the southern extremity of the peninsula of this name. 
It contains various coves or bends, among which is specially worthy 
of attention the one which opens on the western coast of the island of 
Samal, situated in the center of said bay. 

EASTERN COAST. 

After turning Cape San Agustin and going along the eastern coast 
of Mindanao in a northerly direction one finds several bays, among 
which the following are worth}^ of special mention: 

Mayo. — The bay of Mayo is situated near the bay of Pujaga, on the 
northeast, between Point Lamigan on the south and Point Tugubum 
on the north. 

Yucatan. — In the interior of the bay of Mayo and near Point Tugu- 
bum the cove of Yucatan opens. 

Caraga. — The cove of Caraga is found after turning Point Pusan. 

Baganga. — The cove of Baganga runs inward from Point Daguet to 
Point Lambajon. 

Bislig. — The cove of Bislig is comprised between Point Tagtaba on 
the south and Point Maslic on the north. The islet of Masaburon 
divides the entrance of the cove into two channels. 

Liang a. — The cove of Lianga is comprised between Point Baculin 
on the south and Point Umanun on the north, which points are at a 
distance of 8 miles from each other. Other coves open south of Point 
Lambillon and between Tandag and Point Can it, but they are of no 
importance. 

PORTS AND ANCHORING GROUNDS. 




Butuan, near the river of the same name. 

Balmgasag. The harbor of Balingasag is north of Point Qorda 
and next to it. 

Cabtllig. The harbor of Cabulig opens south of Point (iorda and 
north of the town of Jasaan, on the Bay of Macajalar. 

Cagayan, The harbor of Cagayan is northeast of the mouth of the 
River (Jaffa van. at a distance of half a mile. 



REPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 189 

Opol. — The harbor of Opol is 5 miles west of the bar of the River 
Cagayan. 

Alubijit. — The harbor of Alubijit is 7 miles northwest of the harbor 
of Opol. 

Misamis. — The port of Misamis opens at the entrance of the bay of 
Panguil, southwest of the bay of Iligan. 

Loculan. — The harbor of Loculan is situated between the two mouths 
of the river Loculan in the bay of Panguil. 

Dapitan. — The port of Dapitan is opposite the town of this name, 
on the bay called also Dapitan. 

Talaguilong. — The port of Talaguilong is situated between the town 
of Dapitan and Point Tagolo. 

El Caracol. — The Caracol is a small port in the shape of a snail, north 
of the river Dapitan and close to it. 

Dauigan. — The harbor of Dauigan is on the bay of this name. 

Banigan. — That of Banigan is situated south of Point Banigan. 

WESTERN COAST. 

Santa Maria. — The well-sheltered port of Santa Maria is situated 
south of Point Bulangolan and close to it. 

Colder a. — -The port of Caldera is situated near the town of Ayala, 
on the southern extremity of the peninsula of Zamboanga; it is small 
and of little depth, but very well sheltered. 

San Mateo.— The harbor of San Mateo is situated between the port 
of Caldera and Zamboanga. 

SOUTHERN COAST. 

Zamboanga. — The harbor of Zamboanga is one of poor conditions on 
account of its bottom being formed of large rocks. It extends north 
of the islands of Santa Cruz. 

Masingloc. — The excellent harbor or port of Masingloc goes inward 
about 3 miles north of Point Mariqui. It affords excellent shelter when 
high seas are feared, due to the northern hurricanes peculiar to the 
Philippine Islands. 

Banga. — The port of Banga lies back of the cove of this name. 

Bolong and Coruan. — There are anchoring;grounds opposite the two 
towns named, the better being that of Coruan, which is very well shel- 
tered by the islands of the Panubigan group. 

Sambulauan. — The port of Sambulauan lies beyond Point Tambatan, 
on the cove of Matubug. 

Sangarayan. — The island bearing this name, lying south of the 
northern point of the cove of Matubug, together with some hidden 
rocks at the entrance of said cove, afford fair anchoring grounds. 

Tucura?i. — The harbor of Tucuran is west of the mountain of this 
same name. 

' Bar as. — The harbor of Baras, on the cove of this name, is formed 
by the island of Ibus and the coast. 

There are also anchoring grounds between points Matimus and 
Tagapangan. 

Polloc. — The magnificent port of Polloc, situated east of the bay of 
Illana, is comprised between Point Mariga-bato on the south and Point 
Tagapangan on the north. It runs 5 miles in to the east, and together 
with the northern coast it forms the bays of Quidancaco and Sugut, 



190 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

while with the southern coast it forms a still larger bay, withinwhich 
is situated the naval establishment of Polloc. That of Paran-paran is 
on the western part of this bay. Sounding at the entrance of the bay 
shows a depth of over 70 meters, and inside of it there is a depth of 
from 30 to 50 meters. 

Cotabato. — The harbor of Cotabato is situated on that part of river 
Pulangui which is opposite the town of this name. It has 5 meters of 
water. 

Linao. — The harbor of Linao is in the bay of this name. 

Mati. — The harbor of Mati is in the bend formed by the cliffs of 
Point Tabunao, 11 miles nort of Port Lebac. 

Lebac. — This port is formed by points Lebac and Nara. 

Basiauang. — The harbor or harbors of Basiauang, which are sit- 
uated between the cove of Lebac on the north and the cove of Tuna on 
the south, are the best in this part of the coast. 

Timtcto. — The harbor of Timuto is north of Point Baluluan and 
close to it, and west of the entrance to the bay of Sarangani. 

Macar. — The harbor of Macar opens to the northwest of the bay 
of Sarangani and contiguous to it. 

Mine. — The harbor of Mluc is north of point Dimpao, also on the 
bay of Sarangani. 

Marapatang. — The harbor of Marapatang is east of the bay of 
Sarangani. Its conditions are poor. 

Sapo. — The small port of Sapo opens south-southwest of the harbor 
of Marapatang. 

Glan-Masila. — The harbor of Glan-Masila is situated about 3 miles 
north of Point Sumban, at the eastern end of the bay of Sarangani. 

Balangunan, — The harbor of Balangunan lies beyond Point Tinea, 
in the direction of the east-northeast. 

Nuin. — The harbor of Nuin opens \\ miles north of Butulan. 

Cahuran. — The harbor of Caburan is north of Point Caburan. 

Bung. — The harbor of Dung is at the island of Sarangani, Grande, 
or Balut-Marila. 

Tibal, — This harbor is also situated in the same island, after turning 
Point Vay toward the west. 

Minic. — Minic is a bay and anchoring ground at the end of the same 
island. 

Patuco. — The port of Patuco is the best in the island of Sarangani- 
Chica and is situated at the northern end of same, 1 mile south of 
Point Catoan. 

Tumanao. — The port of Tumanao is situated about 1 mile south of 
Point Tian. 

Boa/y. —The port of Boay opens south of the port of Tumanao. 

Mai alag. — The port of Malalag is situated in the cove of Casilaran, 
southwest of the bay of Davao. 

Davao. — The harbor of Davao is situated at more than a cable's 
length from the coast, beyond the bar of the river toward the north. 

Mada/wrrb. The harbor of Madaum is situated near the mouth of 
the liver of this name within the bay of Davao. 

Pandaean and Copia. — There is a good anchoring ground, sheltered 
and protected from all winds between the islands of Pandasan and 
Copia, situated Dear the south-southeast of the mouth of the river 
Ilijo. 

MdHao. Five miles S. \ E. of Point Lahi is the small cove and 
anchorage of Matiao. 



KEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 191 

Sigaboy. — The harbor of Sigaboy is opposite the town of this name. 

Lanigan. — Two miles before reaching- Cape Augustin is the small 
port of Lanigan, good only for small craft. 

Other anchorages can be found in the coves and bends of the bay of 
Davao. 

Malipano. — The harbor of Malipano, a naval station in the bay of 
Davao, is situated between the small island of Malipano and the island 
of Samal. Its conditions are good and it is protected by the island of 
Talicud. 

EASTERN COAST. 

huban. — We call harbor of Luban the one which is met before sail- 
ing past Point Camamauan coming from the South, and is formed by 
the islet and Point Luban. 

Pujaga. — The bay of Pujaga is one of the best ports of Mindanao. 

Macamhol. — The harbor of Macambol is situated inside of the bay 
of Pujaga. 

Caraga. — The harbor of Caraga is situated East of the river which 
bears its name, and it can give shelter to small craft. 

Tufai. — Within the cove of Caraga, toward the south, is the harbor 
of Tubu, a good shelter from the southeast to southwest winds. 

Baganga. — East of the town of Baganga is the harbor of this name. 

There are to be found other harbors in the various coves and bends 
formed by this coast as far as the strait of Surigao. They have, how- 
ever, never been surveyed, neither do they appear to be of any 
importance. 

CAPES AND POINTS. 

There are two capes wortlry of notice in Mindanao. That of Saran- 
gani or Point Tinaca, at the southern end of the island, and that of San 
Agustin at the end of the western coast of the bay of Davao. 

NORTHERN COAST. 

From Point Cauit, the most easterly one of the peninsula of Surigao, 
along the coast toward the west, there are the following points in the 
order named: Tugas, Bilanbilan, Nanoc, Bilaa, Bolobolo, Diuata, 
Sipaca, Gorda, Bagaca} T , Sulauan, Binuni, Biani, Labo, Tabu, Divalan, 
La} T auan, Polo, Bombaon, Silla, Balalo, Tagolo, Botong, Sicayab, 
Blanca, Dauit, Tabonan, Sindangan, Dauigan, Banigan, Quipit, Mada- 
log, Panganuran, Gorda, and Coronada. 

AVESTERN COAST. 

The principal points on this coast, commencing with the most north- 
erly one, are: Bulangonan, Dulunquin, Siocon, Siraguay, Cauit, Pia- 
can, Nanga, Batotindoc, Litangan, Alimpaya, Batalampon, Dumalun, 
and Caldera. 

SOUTHERN COAST. 

The most important points on the coast of Mindanao, which extends 
from Zamboanga through the bays of Sibuguey, Illana, and Davao, are 
the following: Coruan, Lutangan, Taguisian, and Arenas (island of 
Olutanga), Lapat, Flechas, Tambulian, Tambatan, Dapulisan, Pora, 
Caliban, Semaruga, Selungan, Lapitan, Salauan, Matimus, Tagapan- 

p c— vol 3—01 20 



192 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

gan, Marigabato, Tapian, Manangula, Lugus, Luput, Linao, Tabunao, 
Quidapil, Lebac, Nara, Pitas, Basiauang, Tuna, Polo, Bacud. Bui, Balu- 
than, Panguian, Tinaca, at the southern end of the island; Vay and 
Tiain on the islands of Sarangani; Sagal, Pampat, Cabusa, Banos, 
Calian, Lubalan, Tibungoy, Calungan, Pagquiputan, Santana, Bayagua, 
Lasang, Parara, Lalu, Arenas, and others, from the Bay of Davao to 
Cape San Agustin. 

EASTERN COAST. 

Sailing past Cape San Agustin and along the coast toward the north 
one meets the following points: Baluc, Camamauan, Luban, Salasada, 
Nagas, Masala, Macaoran, Alo, Tumadgo, Tataidaga, Camainsi, Batiano, 
Taganilao, Lamigan, Uguis, Gorda, Flaca, Tugubum, Maglubun, Buan, 
Bunga, Pusan, Sancol, Baculin, Lamigon, Daguet, Lambajon, Quin- 
ablayan, Bagoso, Tonquil, Catel, Catarman, Sanco, Tagtada, Maslic, 
Lamon, Baculin, Umanun, Lambillon, Tandag, and Cauit, from the 
latter of which the eastern coast of the Peninsula of Surigao starts. 

ADJACENT ISLANDS. 
BAY. 



The bay of Maluse, situated on the western part of the Isabela de 
Basilan, is a remarkable one. It is the most important bay of the 
whole group of Basilan. 

PORTS AND ANCHORING GROUNDS. 

CAMIGUIN AND BASILAN. 

The harbor of Catarman, in the island of Camiguin, and that of 
Malamaui, in the island of Basilan, are good anchorages. 

POINTS. 

The principal points of Dinagat are: Desolacion and Berrugosa on 
the north. Peninsula and Penascales on the east, and Gabo on the south. 

CAMIGtJIN. 

Points Agojo, Maquinog, Cubuang, and Parol are the best known 
on the island of Camigruin. 



The same may be said of Points Calabaza, Matangal, and Mangal as 
regards the island of Basilan, 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 193 



CHAPTER IV. 

ARCHIPELAGO OF JOLO AND ISLANDS OF LA PARAGTJA 

Al^D BALABAC. 

ARCHIPELAGO OF JOLO. 

BAYS AND COVES. 

GROUP OF BALANGUINGUI. 

There are not in this group any coves or bays wortlry of special 
mention, on account of its being composed of small islands and various 
islets. Navigation between the islands of this group is rather danger- 
ous, on account of the strong currents which are to be found in its 
little-known channels. 

GROUP OF JOLO. 

In this group the most important bays are Jolo, Maibun, Tutu, and 
Pitogo. 

Jolo. — The bay or harbor of Jolo is comprised between points 
Daingapit and Belan on the southern extremity. Its coasts are clear, 
and its bottom, slightly shelving, is generally of thick sand. 

Between points Belam and Candea there are formed two small coves, 
which are separated by Point Bulangsi. 

Maibun. — The cove of Maibun is comprised between points Cabalian 
on the west and Putic on the east, distant from each other 8 miles. It 
runs in about 2 miles northward on the coast of the island of Jolo. 

Tubu. — The bay of Tubu opens east of that of Maibun and close to 
it, between points Putic and Carangdato, distant from each other 13 
miles. 

Pitogo.— The clear and rock-bound bay of Pitogo extends 11 miles 
to the northeast from point Carangdato, and is comprised between this 
point and Point Landican. 

GROUP OF TAPUL. 

Although there are no important bays in the group of Tapul, there 
are various bends which may serve as anchorages, especially in the 
islands of Siasi, Tapul, Lapag, and Lugus. 

GROUP OF TAWI-TAWI. 

Among the bays of the group of Tawi-Tawi, only those of Basbas, 
Tawi-Tawi, and Chongos are worthy of notice. 

Basbas. — The bend or small bay of Basbas is situated on the island 
of this name. 

Tawi-Tawi. — There are on the island of Tawi-Tawi, the largest one 
of the group, four bays or bends, sheltered and distributed at almost 
equal distances around the coast. 

Aguada. — The cove of Aguada is situated south of the island of 
Bongao. 

Chongos. — The cove of Chongos is situated northeast of the same 
island of Bongao, 



194 EEPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

PORTS AND ANCHORING GROUNDS. 

GROUP OF BALANGUINGUI. 

There are some unimportant harbors in this group, especially in the 
island of Balanguingui, Avhich is a center of piracy. 

GROUP OF JOLO. 

Tulayan. — The harbor of Tulayan is the best of the whole group, 
although its depth of sounding water is irregular. It is situated north- 
east of Jolo. South of Tulayan there is a deep cove. 

Jolo. — The anchorage of Jolo is in the bay or harbor of this name. 

Pata. — There is a fair harbor in the island of this name. 

There are also fair anchoring grounds in the bays of Maibun, Tubu, 
and Pitogo. 

GROUP OF TAWI-TAWI. 

Tapaam. — There is good anchorage at the pass of Tapaam, between 
the island of this name and that of Lapag. 

Basbas. — North of the channel of Basbas there is a very well-shel- 
tered harbor and anchoring grounds for all kinds of craft, and it is 
easily accessible. 

Dos Amigas. — The port of Dos Amigas is situated on the northern 
coast of Tawi-Tawi, 9i miles west of the harbor of Basbas. 

Ubian. — Vessels can anchor in the channel which runs east of the 
island of Ubian. There are good anchorages of 13 to 20 meters, over 
sand, opposite to the northern extremity of Ubian, and of 15 to 18 
meters in the placer which extends east of Pandana. 

POINTS. 

The islands of the archipelago of Jolo being mostly small, this archi- 
pelago is unimportant from a hydrographic point of view so tar as the 
survey of its points is concerned. We shall, however, mention a few 
of the principal ones. 

The best known are on the island of Jolo, and they are the following: 
Tuctuc, Igasan, Daingapit, Belan, Candea. Silangan, Cabal ian, Putic, 
Carangdato, and Ludican. 

Point Balimbin, on the island of Tawi-Tawi, is also known. 

ISLAND OF PARAGUA, 
BAYS AND COVES. 

There are various bays and coves of importance on this island. We 
will contine ourselves to mentioning a few of the most important ones. 

WKSTKKN COAST. 

Going along the western coast, starting from the south, one finds 
the following hays and coves: 

Canipcm. The hay of Canipan, formed by Points Alimudin on the 
south and Cape Siacle on the north, derives its name from a river 
which tlows into it. 



EEPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION, 195 

Liraapug. — The bay of Lirnapug runs north from Cape Siacle and 
ends at Point Coreti on the north. 

Sepcmgow. — The bay of Sepangow opens 5-J- miles northeast of Cape 
Siacle. 

Marasi. — The bay of Marasi extends from Point Roca to opposite 
the island of Litalita. 

JEran. — The bay of Eran or Cran opens north of the point of this 
name and contiguous to it. 

Nacoda. — The cove of Nacoda is formed by the island of this name 
and the coast of Paragua. 

Tagbayug. — The bay of Tagbayug extends east of Cape Albion. 

Traidora. — The Traidora Bay opens 12 miles from Cape Albion. 

Apuranan. — The harbor or bay of Apuranan is 5 miles distant from 
the cliff of Moorsom, south of Point Larga. 

Ulugan. — The aborigines call the bay of Banog "bay- of Ulugan." 
It runs inward 8 miles to the south, and almost divides the Paragua in 
two halves. Its entrance is 2 miles wide, between Point Corneria and 
Point Cabeza Rota. 

Taguipa. — The cove of Taguipa opens next to Cape Dean. 

Ostras. — The cove of Ostras is situated between Points Coral and 
Mareografo. 

San Pablo. — The bay of San Pablo extends east of Point Sangbonen. 

JBotalon — The bay of Botalon is formed on the northern coast of 
Point Promontorio. 

Cruz de Mayo. — The bay of Cruz de Ma} 7 o is east of the islands of 
Catalat and Cacbolo and contiguous to them. 

Reinas. — The bay of Reinas runs inward between Point Bubon and 
Point Ostras. 

Pagdanan. — The bay of Pagdanan is comprised between Point Bet- 
bet and Cape Pagdanan. 

Imuruan. — The bay of Imuruan is formed by Cape Pagdanan toward 
the south and Point Emergencia toward the north. 

Inlututoc. — The bay of Inlututoc is formed by Cape Capoas and Point 
Del Diente. 

Bolalo. — The bay of Bolalo, north of Point Del Diente, is comprised 
between this point and Point Barmidiaran. 

Malampaya. — The bay of Malampaya, situated on the opposite coast 
of Taytay, is perhaps the best in the Philippines. 

Pirata. — Pirata Bay is the best of the three bays which are formed 
at the entrance of the port of Malampaya and the narrows which are 
4 miles to the north. 

Caiman. — The bay of Caiman is the northern one of the two which 
occupy the southern side of the strait, contiguous to Pirata Bay. 

Malipu. — The bay of Malipu is separated from the bay of Caiman 
by Point Balulu. 

Bacuit. — The ba} T of Bacuit is a deep bay, formed by a series of 
islands and by the coast of La Paragua, near its northern extremity. 

EASTERN COAST. 

Going along the eastern coast, from south to north, one meets the 
following bays and coves: 

Piedras. — The bay of Piedras runs inward and near the Mantalingajan 
mountain range. 



196 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Islas. — The bay of Islas is on the same parallel as that of Tagbayug 
on the western coast. . 

Aldea. — The bay of Aldea opens 2 miles north of the island of 
Malanoa. 

Honda. — Seamen call Bahia Honda (Honda Bay) that part of the coast 
which extends about 25 miles to the southwest of Point Acantilada. It 
corresponds to the bay of Ulugan on the western coast. 

Islas Verdes. — The bay of Islas Verdes is formed northeast of the 
Verde Islands. 

Dumaran. — The bay of Dumaran opens toward the north of Point 
Barton. 

Taytay. — The magnificent bay of Taytay, 10 miles wide and 6 miles 
deep, extends on the opposite coast corresponding to the interior of 
the port of Malampaya. 

Silanga, — The bay of Silanga is formed by the island of Maitiaguit 
and the coast of La Paragua. 

Aletas de Tiburon. — The bay of Aletas de Tiburon runs inward north 
of Maitiaguit and contiguous to this island. 

Santa Monica. — We call bay of Santa Monica that small cove which 
opens near to the northern extremity of La Paragua, and on which is 
situated the town of this name. 

Darocotan. — The cove of Darocotan opens north of the point of this 
name. 

PORTS AND ANCHORING GROUNDS. 

WESTERN COAST. 

Enron. — There is good anchorage east of Point Eran, in the bay of 
this name. 

Nacoda. — The anchoring grounds of Nacoda are in the cove of this 
name. 

Tagbayug. — The anchoring grounds of Tagbayug are in the bay of 
this name. 

Apuranan. — The anchoring grounds of Apuranan are west of the 
cliff of Apuranan. 

Ulugan. — The anchoring grounds of Ulugan are at the southern 
extremit}^ of the island of Santa Rita. 

Barton. — The port of Barton comprises the space of sea between 
the islands of Albaguen and Cacnipa and the promontoiy which 
advances toward the east of the latter island. 

Capsaldy. — There is an anchorage north of the island of this name. 

Imuruan. — There is also an anchorage in the bay of this name. 

Malampaya. — The magnificent port of Malampa}^ is on the eastern 
part of the peninsula of Capoas. It is without a doubt the best in the 
island. 

( hdlao. — We call the harbor of Cadlao the one which is situated on 
the northern side of the island of this name. 

EASTERN COAST. 

Port Prmcesa or Port Yuahit. — This port is 4£ miles northeast of 
Point Tabla and its entrance is between this point and Point Saboruce. 

Ca/na. We call the harbor of ('ana the one which is situated between 
the ridge of Point Cana and Point Bat eria. 

Dumaran.- The island of Dumaran has good anchoring grounds 
toward the south-southwest of the bay of this name. 



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REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 197 

CAPES AND POINTS. 

The principal capes and points of the western coast of Paragua are: 
Cape Bulilu van, on the southern extremity. Points Reposo, Panimu- 
san, Alimudin, Providencia, Pinos, and Lean; Cape Washington ; points 
Jervois, Townsend, Parapandugang, Eran or Cran; capes Albion and 
Tajado or Point Steep; points Larga, Mesa, Del Noroeste, Piedras, 
Promontorio, Pagdanan, Macaguit, Tabonan, Del Diente, Parmidiaran, 
Del Esfuerzo, De la Columna; Cape of La Cuna; points Baluluk, 
Cabuli, and Darocotan, on the northern extremity of the island. 

EASTERN COAST. 

The principal points on this coast are: Rawnsle}^, Madropora, Decep- 
eion, Marantow, Okyan, De la Iglesia, Segyam, San Juan, Sir James 
Brook, Filantropia, De la Nariz, Del Pescado, Eustasia, Scolt, Separa- 
cion, Casuarina, Tabla, Binunsalian, Bitvooii, Del Castillo, Acantilada, 
Flechas, Bay, Tinactactan, and Negra. 

ISLAND OF BALABAC. 
BAYS AND COVES. 

The principal bays and coves of the island of Balabac are those of 
Calandorang, Dalauan, Clarendon, and Puerto Ciego. 

Calandorang. — The bay of Calandorang extends toward' the north- 
ern part of the island. 

Dalauan. — The bay of Dalauan is on the eastern coast near the 
southern end of the island. 

Clarendon. — The bay of Clarendon opens toward the northeast of 
Dalauan. 

Puerto Ciego. — The ba} 7 known by the name of Puerto Ciego opens 
toward the northwest, and is obstructed by coral reefs. 

ANCHORING GROUNDS. 

Although anchor may be dropped all along the channel or northern 
strait of Balabac, there is a bend west of a rather long ledge of rocks 
which is formed in front of the mouth of a wide creek and which is 
more or less half a cable's length distant from the eastern entrance of 
the channel on the southern coast, where there is an anchorage of 10 
meters in depth with a mud bottom. 

Port of Principe Alfonso. — There is a good anchorage in the bay of 
Calandorang, sheltered and protected, especially against the winds and 
seas from south to west, called Port of Principe Alfonso. 

CAPES. 

Capes Desastre and Melville, the former on the northern extremity 
of the island and the latter on the southern end, are worth mentioning 
specially. 



198 REPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

CHAPTER V. 

SEAS, CHAlSnsnEIjS, STRAITS, PASSAGES, AINTD "SILANGAS." 

REMARKS. 

As it was not easy to include in the division which we have followed 
in this treatise the seas, channels, straits, passages, and silangas of the 
Philippine Archipelago on account of their large number, and it being 
on the other hand very useful to know where they are situated, we 
have thought it proper to devote this chapter to the enumeration and 
location of same. 

Although there is apparently no essential difference between a chan- 
nel, a strait, a passage, and a " silanga," we shall still adopt the names 
given by seamen acquainted with these islands, or which have been 
used in the hydrographic maps hitherto published. 

SEAS. 

The seas which wash the Philippine Archipelago are the Pacific 
Ocean on the east, the China Sea on the north and west, the Celebed 
Sea on the south, and the Sea of Jolo or Mindoro, comprised between 
the islands of Borneo, Paragua, Calamianes, Mindoro, Panay, Negros, 
Mindanao, and the archipelago of Jolo. 

The portion of sea which extends from the southern part of Luzon 
to the northern coast of Mindanao, between the Visaya Islands, is 
known by the names of Interior Sea, Interinsular Sea, and Visayas Sea. 

CHANNELS. 

The most important channels in the Philippines are the following: 

Channel of Baschi, between the island of Formosa and the group of 
Batanes, north of Luzon. 

Channel of Balingtan, between the Babuyanes Islands and the 
Batanes, north of Luzon. 

Channel of Isla Verde, between Luzon and the island of Mindoro. 

Channel of Lubang, between the group of the Lubang Islands and 
Mindoro. 

Channel of Mindoro, between Mindoro and the Calamianes group. 

Channel of Ylin, between the Ylin and Mindoro islands. 

Channel of Ambolon, between the Ylin and Ambolon islands. 

Channel of Biliran, between the northwestern point of Leyte and 
the southwestern coast of Biliran. 

Channel of Buad, between the bay of Maqueda and the Parasan and 
Buad islands. 

Channel of Janabatas, on the west-northwest end of the strait of 
San Juanico. 

Channel of Malapascua, between the Malapascua and Chocolate 
islands. 

Channel of Tictauan, at the eastern entrance to the strait of Basilan. 

Channel of Binitosa, in the Basilan group. 

Channel of Salipin, in the Basilan group, to the south. 

Channel of Tapiantana, in the Basilan group, to the south. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 199 

Channel of Siasi, in the Tapul group. 

Channel of Basbas, in the Tawi-tawi group. 

Channel del Norte, northeast of the island of Balabac. 

Channel of Comiran, east of the island of Balabac. 

Channel of Lumbacan, east of the island of Balabac. 

Channel of Sirnanahan, east-southeast of the island of Balabac. 

Channel of Emnedio, southeast of the island of Balabac. 

Channel of Mangsee, southwest of the above. 

Channel of Noche Buena, in the Tawi-tawi group. 

Channel of La Verbena, in the Tawi-tawi group. 

Channel of Maipat, in the Tawi-tawi group. 

Channel of Cambacamba, in the Tawi-tawi group. 

Channel of Sipungut, in the Tawi-tawi group. 

Channel of Tandubas, in the Tawi-tawi group. 

Channel of the west of Banaran, in the Tawi-tawi group. 

Channel of the west of Basibuki, in the Tawi-tawi group. 

Channel of Balseiro, in the Tawi-tawi group. 

Channel of Bambulin, in the Tawi-tawi group. 

Channel of Pasco, in the Verde Islands. 

Channel of Durnaran, between the islands of Dumaran and Paragua. 

STRAITS. 

The principal straits are: 

Strait of San Bernardino, between the Southern end of Luzon and 
the northwestern end of the island of Sarnar. 

Strait of the Isla Verde, between Luzon and the Island of Min- 
dora. (Also called Channel of the Isla Verde.) 

Strait of Los Ticlines, between Luzon and the islands of Calintan, 
Juac, and Ticlin, southeast of the province of Sorsogon. 

Strait of Mindoro, between Mindoro and the Calamianes Island. 
(Also called Channel of Mindoro.) 

Strait of San Juanico, between the islands of Samar and Leyte. 

Strait of Coron, in the Calamianes group. 

Strait of Iloilo, between the islands of Panay and Negros. 

Strait of Tanon, between the islands of Negros and Cebu. 

Strait of Surigao, between the southern ends of Samar and Leyte 
and the northern coast of Mindanao. 

Strait of Basilan, between the islands of Mindanao and Basilan. 

Strait of the Bloqueo, toward the south of Tuluran (Paragua). 

Strait of El Esfuerzo, toward the east of Tuluran (Paragua). 

Strait of Balabac, between the islands of Balabac and Banguey. 

Strait of the north of Balabac, between the islands of La Paragua 
and Balabac. 

PASSAGES. 

The passages between the various islands are, as it will be easily 
understood, innumerable. We shall only mention some of those 
specially known as being the most frequented by vessels: 

Passages of Boca Chica and Boca Grande, at the entrance of the bay 
of Manila. 

Passages of Ambil, in the group of the Lubang Islands. 

Passages north of the Verde Island, between the Verde Island and 
Batangas. 

Passages south of the Verde Island, between the Verde and Mindoro. 



200 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Passage north of Maricaban, between the island of Maricaban and 
Batangas. 

Passage south of Maricaban, between the islands of Maricaban and 
Mindoro. 

Passage of Mompog, between Point Tuginan (Luzon) and the island 
of Mompog. 

Passage of Sibu}^an, between the islands of Sibuyan and Masbate. 

Passage of Masbate, between this island and that of Ticao. 

Passage of Ticao, between this island and that of Luzon. 

Passage of Tablas, between this island and that of Romblon. 

Passage of Bocaboe, at the entrance of the Strait of Tanon. 

Passage east of Ginatuan, between the northeastern coast of Min- 
danao and the islands of Dinagat and Bucas. 

Passage of Tapaam, in the Tawi-tawi group. 

Passage of Pangutaran, in the Tawi-tawi group. 



The most frequented "silangas" are the following: 

"Silanga" of Golo, in the Lubang group. 

"Silanga" of Cabra, in the Lubang group. 

"Silanga" of Kapurrapu, between the islands of Rapurrapu and 
Batan. 

" Silanga" of Sula, between Luzon and the island of Cacraray. 

6 4 Silanga " of Pitogo, between Luzon and the island of Pitogo. 

"Silanga" of Casolgan, between the islands of Cacraray and San 
Miguel. 

"Silanga" of Cacraray, between the islands of Cacraray and Batan. 

"Silanga" of Cebu, between the islands of Cebu and Mactan. 

"Silanga" of Tagbilaran, between the islands of Boholand Panglao. 

" Silanga" of Gabo, between Dinagat and the islands of the Ginatuan 
group. 

"Silanga" of Dapa, between the southwestern coast of the island of 
Sirgao and the island of Bucas. 

"Silanga" of La Isabela, between the islands of Malamaui and 
Basilan. 



PART SECOND. 



TERREST1UAL HYDRO GKRAPHY. 



CHAPTER I. 

RIVERS AND LAKES. 

LUZON. 
FOUR PRINCIPAL RIVERS. 

There are four principal rivers in the island of Luzon, which run in 
opposite directions nearly the whole length of the inland, namely : The 
Grande de Caga}^an, the Agno Grande, the Abra, and the Grande de 
la Pampanga. Their basins are determined by the three great moun- 
tain ranges, which, as we said in the Treatise on Orography, belong to 
the system of the Caraballos. 

BASIN OF THE RIVER GRANDE DE CAGAYAN. 

Among the rivers of Luzon the Grande de Cagayan, likewise called 
Tajo b}^ the Spaniards, holds the first place, not only on account of its 
great length but also on account of the great volume of its waters. 
Compared with all the rivers of the archipelago it is second to none, 
unless it be the river Grande de Mindanao. The territory drained by 
it embraces all the region l} T ing between the Western Caraballos, the 
Sierra Madre, and the Southern Caraballos, with a total area or extent 
of 38.52 square kilometers. The source of this great river is on the 
northern slope of the Southern Caraballos, to the east of the starting- 
point of the Mamparan mountain range. 

At first it follows a northeasterly direction, and after receiving the 
waters which come from the eastern slope of the above-mentioned 
Mamparan range and those which come from the western slope of the 
Sierra Madre, it continues in the same general direction for a distance 
of more than 20 leagues until it reaches Tumauini, which is about half- 
way of its course, having received by its left bank, in the neighbor- 
hood of Ganm, the largest of its affluents, the River Magat. Passing 
by Ilagan and Tumauini, it continues its course in a northerly direction, 
and having, with great windings, fertilized the towns of Cabagan, 
Nuevo, Iguig, Amulung, Alcala, Gattaran, and Lal-lo, it reaches, with 
a broad and navigable current, the town of Aparri, located near its 
mouth, where it } T ields up its tribute of waters to the China Sea, which 
bathes the northern coast of Luzon. 

Numerous tributaries pour into the Cagayaan on both sides, those 
deserving special mention being the Magat, the Bangag or Chico, and 
the Siffu or Sibbu, which enter into it by the left bank. 

201 



202 KEPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



The Magat is approximately 25 leagues long, and rises in the south- 
west corner of the province of Nueva Vizcaya, among the mountains 
Mingolit, Salacsa, Dalandem, and Ugu or Lugsen, at the junction of 
the Western Caraballos and Mamparan mountain ranges. It runs first 
toward the north, passing by Aritao; it waters the boundaries of Bam- 
bang, Bayombong and Bagabag; then it turns toward the east, passing 
by Reina Mercedes, and empties its waters into the Cagayan near the 
town of Gamu. The affluents of the Magat, within the province of 
Nueva Vizcaya, are: the Mingolit, Caraballo, Abual, Matumut, Ibulao, 
Alinit, Mayoyao, and other less important ones on the left bank, and 
the Abian, Angadanan, and Salinan on the right. 



The Bangag or Chico empties into the Cagayan on its left bank in 
the township of Alcala, and near the town of Nagsiping. It gathers 
its waters from numerous tributaries, which descend in different direc- 
tions from the rugged mountains situated on the west of the divide of 
Itaves, and those from the eastern slopes of the Central Caraballos # , 
where it rises near the valley of Banano. Its length is some 17 leagues, 
and, although at the beginning it flows from west to east as far as near 
Piat, it turns thence toward the northeast until it reaches the Cagayan. 
While passing through the provinces of Cagayan, Albra, and Bon toe 
it receives its most important tributaries, which are the Saltan, Nab- 
buangan, and Sable. 

SIFFU. 

The Siffu or Sibbu gathers all the waters of the region west of the 
district of Bontoc and, flowing toward the east, passes through part of 
Isabela until it joins the Cagayan between Ilagan and Tumauini. 

OTHER AFFLUENTS. 

From the western slopes of the Sierra Madre, crossing districts 
inhabited only by savages, there descend many other tributaries of the 
Cagayan, which join it on its right bank; the principal ones being the 
Disabungan, Ditulay, Catalangan, Tarretic, Masagan, Pinacanauan do 
Tumauini, Pinacanauan de Cabagan, and Pinacanauan de Tuguegarao. 
They are all short, the longest not exceeding 10 leagues in length. 

BASIN OF THE AGNO GRANDE. 

The Agno is the second in importance among the rivers of Luzon. 
It rises on the southern slope of Mount Data, near the boundary 
between the districts of Benguet aixl Lepanto and the province of Nueva 
V izcava. Its length is about 32 leagues. It crosses the district of Ben- 
gwet from north to south and the prpvince of Pagasinan in a direction 
from northwest to southeast at first, and between San Nicolas and 
Tayug it begins to form a great sweep, which continues in the direction 
from northeast to southwest, passing through Rosales, Alcala, and 
Bayambang, and after having received the waters of the river Tarlac a 
little further south, inclines toward the northwest, watering the bound- 









REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 203 

aries of Urbiztondo and Aguilar, and dividing into two branches near 
Salasa, one flowing toward the northeast and ending in Dagupan, while 
the other flows toward the west, and after having received near San 
Isidro the waters of a branch of the first, which passes by the town of 
Lingayen, it pours its waters into the western part of the Gulf of 
Lingayen. 

TRIBUTARIES. 

There are many tributaries to the Agno Grande, on account of the 
broken country it runs through, but those which carry the most water 
are the ones received in the second half of its course, and the principal 
ones among them are the Tarlac and the Camilung, which empty into 
it on the left in the vast plains of Pangasinan. The other tributaries 
on the left are the Angba}^abang, Matablan, Nibobon, Agra, Olo, 
Julaguit, Soboc, Salamague, and Dumulo. Of those on the right bank, 
which are not so numerous, the only ones that deserve mention are the 
Agno Chico, the Catablas, the Macalang, and the Sinuncalan. 

BASIN OF THE ABBA. 

The third of the rivers of Luzon is the Abra, which, descending from 
the northern slope of the Data, in the district of Lepanto, in the oppo- 
site direction to the river Agno Grande, gathers in the beginning the 
waters of the northern and western slopes of the Data, and those of its 
tribuary, the Sayuc, which, having its source on the southern declivity 
of the same mountain, forms a great curve toward the south, then runs 
toward the north, and empties into the Abra between the towns of 
Manca}^an and Cervantes, the volume of water being then considerable. 
Its general direction from Cervantes to Angaqui, near the mountain 
range of Tila, and in the eastern part, is from south to north as far as 
Tayum, in the province of Abra; there it describes a semicircle in a 
southerly direction and soon continues in a southwesterly course, passes 
through the mountain range which separates Abra from Ilocos Sur, and, 
having watered the boundaries of Bangued, Pidigan, and San Quintin, 
divides, within Ilocos Sur, near Santa, into two branches, which not 
far from Vigan empty at different points into the China Sea. Its 
length is some 25 leagues. 

TBIBUTABIES. 

Besides the Suyuc it receives as tributary the Tinog, which is formed 
by the union of the Anayan and Caluan, which gather the waters from 
the southern slopes of Pagsan. It flows from northeast to southwest, 
to increase its volume, near La Paz, with the waters of several rivers 
which rise in the mountains Liputen, Mabulusan, Cusa, Balatinao, and 
Maonayud, until between Dolores and San Gregorio it joins the main 
branch of the Abra. Other less important tributaries, are the Mala- 
nao, Baay, Abas, Mamebel, Bulloc, Damunil, Ulip, Balasian, and Dica- 
pen, all on the right bank, which gather the waters from the western 
slope of the central Caraballos. 

BASIN OF THE RIO GRANDE DE LA PAMPANGA. 

The river Grande de la Pampanga has its source in several rivers 
which drain the waters from the southern slopes of the Southern Cara- 
ballos range, in mountains Lagsig and Mingolit, and therefore on the 

p c— vol 3—01 21 



204 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

opposite slope to that of the river Magat, which, as we have just seen, 
belongs to the basin of the river Grande de Cagayan. Its general 
direction is from north to south, and it flows through the provinces of 
Nueva Ecija and Panrpanga. In the first part of its course and before 
receiving, near Arayat, the river Chico de la Parnpanga, it waters the 
boundaries of Bongabon, Santos, Cabanatuan, Jaen, San Isidro, and 
Cabiao, all in Nueva Ecija. From Ara} T at it turns toward the east, 
and, passing near the shores of Lake Candaba, it continues through 
San Luis, San Simon, and Calumpit, always toward the south, until, 
having divided into numerous branches, it forms a complicated net- 
work of channels and marshes, which emptv their waters into Manila 
Bay. 

RIVER CHICO DE LA PAMPANGA. 

The river Chico de la Parnpanga rises in Lake Canaron, province of 
Tarlac, and, taking a southeast course between the boundaries of Nueva 
Ecija, Tarlac, and Parnpanga, after having fertilized the boundaries of 
La Paz and Zaragoza, near Arayat, province of Parnpanga, contributes 
its waters to the voluminous . river which from said confluence to its 
mouth is properly called the river Grande de la Parnpanga. 

OTHER TRIBUTARIES. 

The principal tributaries of this great river are the Barat, Calun- 
gan, Carranglan, Tuntumin, San tor, Gapan, San Jose, and Parudo. 

RIVERS CAUIT, PASIG, BICOL, AND IMUS. 

CAUIT. 

The Cauit traverses the province of Ilocos Norte, and, passing between 
Laoag and San Nicolas, over the bar of its name, pours its waters into 
the China Sea. Its tributaries are, among others, the Gant, the Guisi, 
the Bay bay, the Pagsan, and the Pagsambaran, which descend from 
the western slopes of the northern Caraballos. 



The Pasig, which flows out of the Laguna de Bay through five 
branches and is its outlet, empties into the magnificent bay of Manila. 
It has several tributaries, those which it receives from the right bank 
being the only important ones, among which may be mentioned, on 
account of their great volume of water, the Cainta, Grande de San 
Mateo, and San Francisco del Monte. Those which unite with it on 
the left bank are nothing more than small streams and creeks, short in 
length and carrying little water. The river Pasig is the principal 
moans of communication between Manila and the interior of Luzon, 
especially between Manila and the Laguna de Bay, which is only 18 miles 
distant. Its width is from 100 to 2.000 motors, and its depth is also 
variable, ranging from 2.23 to 6.13 meters. 



The Bicol is the principal river of Southern Luzon. It rises on the 
slopes of Mount tsarog, province of Ambos Camarines, and flows 
toward the southwest, dividing into two branches, the smaller one taking 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 205 

a southeastern course until it empties into the lake of Bato, while the main 
branch follows a southwestern direction, and, passing through Nueva 
Caceres, San Nicolas, and Panon, empties, after a course of 178 kilo- 
meters, through its mouth at Cabusan, into the bay of San Miguel. 
Its tributaries on the left bank rise in the Colasi Mountains and in 
Mount Amtig. This river forms, with the Quinali and the Lipocot, the 
basis of the hydrography of the province, and is of no small importance 
to the geology of Ambos Camarines. 



The Imus also deserves special mention because it empties into 
Manila Bay, and it is navigable up to the town which gave it its name. 

MINOR RIVERS. 

The rivers of the coast are of little importance. Those which rise 
on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre pour their waters into the 
Pacific Ocean. They are the Degollirin, in Isabela; the Casighan, 
which empties into the bay of Baler, district of Principe; the Baler, 
which has several tributaries (the principal ones being the Dicaniti, the 
Dimanalepe, the Malanis, the Dimunaglan, and the Caliselan), empties 
into the bay of the same name; the Ibonaii runs into the cove of Din- 
gala; the Taborgon, into the cove of Sogod; the Cabibijan and the 
Calabanga, into the bay of Nagay; the Simol and the Timuragat, into 
the bay of San Miguel; the Malaquing and the Hog, which descend 
from Mount Malara} r at, into the bay of Tayabas; the Batangas, formed 
by the Tabla, and others which empty into the ba} 7 of Batangas. 

LAKES OF BAY AND BOMBON. 



The lake of Bay, situated between the provinces of Manila, Morong, 
Cavite, and Laguna, is undoubtedly the most important in the island 
of Luzon. It is some 200 kilometers in circumference, with an island 
in the center called Talim, which forms the strait of Quinabulusan, 
besides several other small islands, such as those called Pulo Insan, 
Pulo Olgipan, Pulo Calamba, and Pulo Bay. On the north there are 
three gulfs and two peninsulas, and on its shores are found the capitals 
Morong and Santa Cruz de la Laguna. It communicates with Manila 
Ba} T through the Pasig River, and it receives the waters of 15 rivers. 
It has all the appearance of a small sea of fresh water, and among 
the fish caught in it those called "corvinas" (a kind of conger) are 
celebrated. 

BOMBON OR TAAL. 

The lake of Taal or Bombon, situated in the northeastern part of the 
province of Batangas, is second in importance among the lakes of 
Luzon. It has a perimeter of 120 kilometers, approximately, its 
diameters from north to south and from east to west being, respec- 
tively, 28 and 20 kilometers. It communicates with the sea through 
the river Pansipit, which has a very slight inclination, and this clearly 
proves that there is veiy little difference between the level of the lake 
and the sea level. In spite of its small size the depth of this lake is 
quite considerable, measuring as much as 106 fathoms at a very short 



206 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

distance from the shore in some places, as has been proved by various 
soundings taken in it. In the midst of it is the volcano of Taal, which 
we mentioned in the Treatise on Orography, Chapter III, page 439. 

OTHER NOTEWORTHY LAKES. 

Besides those of Bay and Bombon, there are also worthy of mention, 
in the territory of Luzon, those of Candaba and Canaren, in the prov- 
ince of Pampanga; that of Hagonoy, in Bulacan; that of Mangabol, 
between the towns of Paniqui and Ba} T ambang, in the province of Tar- 
lac, more than 25 kilometers in circumference; that of Cagayan, in 
the northeastern region of the province of that name, with a length of 
16 kilometers b}^ 11 in width; that of Talavera, in Nueva Ecija, with 
a perimeter of 22 kilometers; that of Paoay or Danum, 10 meters 
deep and more than 10 kilometers in extent, in the province of Ilocos 
Norte; the lake Bato, among whose tributaries are found the rivers 
Bicol, Naga, Libon, and others, which irrigate its surroundings, a 
deep lake, very rich in fish; that of Buhi, large and beautiful, whence 
start several rivers, among them the important one which takes its 
name, and that of Baao, no less extensive, all of them belonging to 
the province of Ambos Camarines. 

ISLANDS ADJACENT TO LUZON. 
MINDORO. 



According to the Official Guide of the Philippines more than sixty 
rivers in the island of Mindoro are known, and there must be many 
more in the interior that have not yet been explored. Among the 
former the principal ones are the Malayky, between Bacoo and 
Subaang; the Nabuluan, Magasauangtubig, Navotas, Naujan, Pola, 
Maeaulit, Bansod, Masaguisi, and Bongabon, between Pola and Ticlin; 
the Basig, Bnmbusan, and Manjao, between Ticlin and Bulalacao; 
the Lambangan, in Mangarin; the Pagbajan, which empties into the 
bay of Paluan, and the Tabinay, in Puerto Galera. 

The Santo Tomas, Maasim Arnay, Santa Cruz, and Mamburao 
should also be cited. 

LAKE OF NAUJAN. 

This lake is located in the northeast part of the island. Tt is some 
25 kilometers in circumference, and the river Naujan Hows from it 
and, passing the town of the same name on the south, runs directly 
into the sea. 

MASBATE. 

Of all the rivers of this island only the Lauang, the Asid, and the 
Guinotaban are worthy of special mention. The first descends from 
the mountains of Bagasimbahan and runs from south to north to its 
mouth in (he port of Barrera. The second comes down from the oppo- 
site side of the same mountains, takes a contrary course, and ends in 
the bay of the same name. The third is important only on account of 
the auriferous sands which it brings down with it. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 207 

CATANDUANES. 

Among its small rivers the principal ones are the Himoto and Sinago, 
which empt}^ on the east coast, and the Batoo, which empties on the 
south coast, near the town of the same name, and is, perhaps, the 
longest and the one which has the most water of all. 

POLIIXO. 

The rivers Upala and Bonleo and several other less important ones 
descend from the central mountains of the island. 

BISAYAS ISLANDS. 

PANAY. 

Three great rivers, which may well be called of the first order, con- 
stitute the drainage system of Panay .^ They are the Panay, Jalaur, 
and Aclan. There are other less important ones, among which the 
most prominent are the Salug, the Ibajay, and the Sibalon. 



The Panay, which is the principal one, rises in the northern slopes 
of Mount Baloy, which, as we have seen in the Treatise on Orography, 
constitutes the dividing line between the provinces of Capiz, Antique, 
and lloilo. From its source the Panay takes the direction from east 
to west as far as Capas, whence, with numerous and marked windings, 
it turns toward the southeast, irrigates the boundary of Dumalag, and 
before reaching the boundary of Cuartero its volume is augmented 
with the waters of the Babbarad, with numerous tributaries, and turn- 
ing toward the south it passes through Dao, and receives two large 
tributaries, the Mambusao and the May on, which so increase its 
volume that from Panitan to its mouth it attains an approximate 
width of 100 meters. After the May on joins it it turns toward the 
north, waters the territories of Panitan and Loctugan, and divides 
near Agbangbang into two branches, the main one of which, flowing 
toward the east, passes through the town of Panay, and empties into 
the sea by three main mouths, called Jumulao, Paua, and Guibuangan- 
Daco, while the other takes a course from south to north until it again 
divides into two forks in the ward of Sansasud, one of the two branches 
taking the name of the river Banicaa, and being lost in the marshes of 
the mouth Guibuangan-Daco, and the other continuing as far as Capiz, 
capital of the provincial district, whence it takes the general course of 
west-northwest, and empties into the gulf which is formed south of 
Point Nipa. 

JALAUR. 

The Jalaur also rises in Mount Baloy, receives innumerable although 
small tributaries on both sides, and takes its course toward the south- 
east. In Alibunan the river of this name joins it. It turns toward 
the southeast, waters the confines of Calino and Passi, where the 
Lamunang unites with it, a river with a considerable volume of water 
which it gathers from many affluents, the principal one being the 
Maliao. It waters the confines of San Enrique, on the south, and not 
very far from Duenas receives the waters of the Ulian, formed by 



208 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

many affluents from the main mountain range, and continues in a south- 
east direction as far as Dingle, taking in this township a southerly 
course. In Jalaur it increases its volume of water with the Abangay 
and the Suague, from the same source as the Ulian, and waters the 
boundaries of Pototan and Barotac Nuevo on the south, and having 
received the waters of the Janipaan it empties at Colongcolong into 
the strait of Iloilo. 

ACLAN. 

The Aclan has the same source as the Pana}% but not the same direc- 
tion, which is from soutn to north with few windings. It receives its 
main tributaries on the left from the western slopes of the mountains of 
the main range, traverses Libacao, Madalag, and Malinao, irrigates the 
boundary of Calivo, and in Camansi, near the northern coast, it divides 
into two branches, forming the little island of Bacao. Its principal 
tributaries are the Dalagnan, Cabarsana, Dumala} T lay, Tingbaban, 
Bulabot, and Malinao, on the left bank. Those on the right bank are 
less important, among them the Manicaa and the Pangpangon, which 
has several tributaries, and the Calancan. 



The Salug, proceeding from a depression in the eastern slopes of 
mounts Llorente and Inaman of the main mountain range, follows a 
course from northwest to southeast, and waters the boundaries of 
Maasin, Cabatuan, Santa Barbara, and Pavia, where the Agauan unites 
with it, until near Iloilo, where it empties. 

It is some 60 kilometers long and receives the waters of the Titong, 
which also rises in the eastern valleys of Mount Inaman and in the 
opposite ones of Tiratid, and after a course of 22 kilometers empties 
into the Salug by its right bank, near Maasin. The Agauan descends 
from Mount Tiguran in an easterly course and lower down changes its 
direction toward the south, and, flowing through the town of San 
Miguel, twists toward the east, where, after a course of some 52 kilo- 
meters, it empties into the river Salug, also by the right bank, near 
pavia. 

IBA.TAY. 

The Ibajay has its source among the Toctocon and Sanasico moun- 
tains, at a considerable height, and descends toward the northwest. 
with many turnings, until it reaches its confluence with the Garot. It 
has many tributaries, among which may be named the rivers Dalanao 
and Garot. The Garot, which is the most notable, rises on the north- 
ern slope of Mount Panancaban, in the district of Antique. 

S1HALON. 

The Sibalon, which descends from the western slope of Mount Llo- 
rente, on (he opposite side to the river Salug. follows a course from 
northeast to southwest, passes through San Kemigio, and fertilizing 
the boundaries of Sibalon and San Pedro, near this town, pours its 
waters into the sea by the western coast. Its chief tributaries are the 
Tangday, Maninila, which is formed by the Dungaron and Maliao, 
the lianayan and the-Tigpuluan. The latter, which has the greatest 
volume of water, unites with it in the town of Sibalon. 



REPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 209 



LESS IMPORTANT RIVERS. 



Finally, although not so important as the preceding, there are, 
however, several rivers in the central region worth mentioning, regard- 
ing which Don Enrique Abella, in his Descripcion Fisica de Panay 
(physical description of Panay), says the following: 

u The rivers Timagboc, Uyungan, Sinaragan, Bacauan, Bayonan, 
Tiolas, Lanigan, and Hibog, which empty on the south, and those of 
Tagalan, Jalo, Habalili, and Ibisan, which empty on the north of the 
island, may also be mentioned as very notable. In the western region, 
to the north of the basin of the river Sibalon, there are three others 
which almost attain the same size, namely, the rivers Cangaranan, 
Paliuan, and Dalanas, and they are the ones which, on account of their 
importance, should be classed next to the Sibalon. Then to the north 
and south of these four most noteworthy streams in Antique, there are 
other rivers, which decrease in size as the distance from the former 
increases. Among them should be mentioned, on the north, the Cai- 
raman, located between Dalanas and Paliuan, the Tibiao, the Bacon, the 
Bacalan, and the Ipayog, and on the south, the Antique, the Asluman, 
and the Dao. In the eastern region the most notable rivers are: 
Balantian, Bangun, and Pamian or Estancia, which now through the 
plain of Balasan and Quiasan, and which empty into the sea through 
great salt lakes of great depth up to the bars; the Bunglas and its 
numerous tributaries from the beautiful plain of Sara and Ajuy; the 
Barotac Vie jo, on whose banks auriferous exploitations have been 
made, and the Aglacaigan, which empties into Banate." 

NEGROS. 

The principal rivers of this island are those which empty on the west 
coast, the Ginigaran, Himamaylan, and Hog being the most prominent. 
The Danao, 200 meters wide and 15 deep, which flows from west to 
east between Calatrava and Escalante, and the Marinas, 300 meters 
wide and 20 deep, its great branch, called the Tanao, being noteworthy, 
empty on the north coast. Other minor rivers are the Bunglas, Cadiz 
Nuevo, Manapla, Toreno, Talabe, Mandalagan, Siluban, Macaribao, 
Marianas, Pontevedra, Siaton, San Enrique, and some others. 

CEBU. 

The rivers of this island are of little importance, because they are 
all short, on account of the mountain range which divides the island 
into two very narrow parts. The one which has the longest course is 
the Baliguigam, which, descending from the central mountains, flows 
with all the characteristics of a torrent toward the northeast, until, 
after crossing an extensive zone of calcareous lands, it empties into the 
sea through a channel 300 meters wide. The Cotcot, belonging to the 
same eastern slope, is almost as large, and likewise resembles a torrent. 
Located to the south of the preceding on the same slope is the longer 
river of Mananga. In conclusion, there are worthy of special mention 
the Danao, which descends from Mount Mangilao and runs to the 
north of the Cotcot; the Alpaco, Minaga, Carcar, Catmon, Bao, and 
some others. 



210 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

SAMAR. 

The majority of the tributaries of jLhe principal rivers of this island 
are unknown, because its central part is so rugged and therefore its 
interior hydrograplry unfamiliar. The main rivers, which fertilize it 
in various directions, are the Oras, which, starting from the extreme 
north of the central mountain range, flows at first toward the southeast, 
and then to the east, pouring its waters into the bay of Uguis, on the 
Pacific, having traversed some 57 kilometers; the Suribao, which, ris- 
ing in the same mountains, soon turns toward the east, emptying on 
the same coast as the preceding; the Vlut, which starts from the cen- 
tral range, takes its course toward the northeast, then deviates to the 
east, and, after a course of some 25 kilometers, ends in the Pacific; 
the Laguan, which has its source on the same central divide, flows con- 
stantly toward the north, passes through Catubig, and drains into the 
bay of the same name; the Bato, which originates from the northern 
slopes of mounts Salta and Sangie} 7 , and flows in a north-northeast 
direction, emptying on the north coast, near the bay of Laguan; the 
Timonini, with the same source and running parallel to the Bato. Other 
less important rivers are the Antiyao, Basey, Balangiga, Opong, Pag- 
babangunan, Calba} 7 og, and Bagajon, which, with many others, water 
the fertile plains and thick forests of this island. 

Besides, the island of Samar has four large lakes, viz, Somotoc, 
Calbiga, Ganoy, and Sampinit, among which that of Calbiga is remark- 
able for its extensive borders, all of rock, which make it resemble a 
great boiler. 

LEYTE. 

The chief rivers of this island empty on the eastern coast into the 
Pacific. Among them are Dao, or Burauen, which comes from the 
central mountains, flows toward the east, and empties into the sea a 
little below Dulag; the Binahaan, which proceeds from lake Amandi- 
uing, passing to the north of the town Dagami; the Palo, which, formed 
by the Dapdap and other tributaries, empties into the bay of San Pedro 
y San Pablo, and the Bito, which originates in the lake of its name 
and ends a little above Abuyog, The Maasim, proceeding from the 
mountains in the southern part of the island, runs some 40 kilometers 
from northeast to southwest and, bathing the boundary of Maasin, 
ends at point Gigantigan on the south coast. The Le}^te empties on 
the north coast. It originates in a lake located to the west of Jaro, 
flows from south to north, and ends near the town of its name. Other 
smaller rivers are the Bao, Tanauan, Malburay, Cabayungan, Caloan, 
Cauliling, Masayac, Bayongbong, Cabalasan, Panilahan, Ba} T oc, Bulac, 
Mantitinao, Anilao, and Mansanga. 

Lake Bito is of considerable extent and depth, especially during the 
rainy season, when it attains a circumference of more than 30 kilome- 
ters. Lake Jaro has a circumference of 25 kilometers and communi- 
cates with the sea through the river Leyte, which empties into the 
port of the same name. 

Among the notable lakes are Aslutn, 5. 57 kilometers long b}*- 1.39 
wide, with a depth of 15 fathoms; Cabalian, which measures 2.86 kilo- 
meters; Polo, 3 kilometers long from northwest to southeast, and 500 
meters wide from north to south. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 211 



BOHOL. 

In spite of its small extent the island of Bohol contains a number of 
rivers, although all are short and are dry after the rainy season is 
over. Those that deserve special mention are the Maasin, Muguid, 
Manaba, Napo, Gulayan, Cabidian, Lagumay, Soca-Vilar, Fragata, 
Taginting, and Inabanga. 

SIBUYAN. 

There are three principal rivers in Sibuyan, the Mabolog, which 
rises in the highest peak, located in the center of the island; the Cam- 
bulayan, which has its source on the eastern slope of the peak of 
Sibuyan and empties on the east coast of the island at a very short 
distance from Point Cambulayan; the Nailog, which has its source 
half way up the peak of the same name. 

MINDANAO. 

BASIN OF THE RIO GRANDE, OR PULANGUI. 

The river Grande, or Pulangui, deserves the first place in the hydrog- 
raphy not only of Mindanao, but also of the whole archipelago, on 
account of its volume of water and its length. This large river rises 
on the eastern slopes of the mountains Sobrac and Quimanquil of the 
central-western range and on the western slopes of the central-eastern 
range in the northeast part of the island, in the district of Misamis, 
and at a height of approximately 1,50(H meters above the level of the 
sea. It descends by successive falls over the broken landings from 
which said ranges resemble a stairway; it flows among enormous rocks 
heaped up in its bed toward the south until after a course of 80 kilo- 
meters it joins the Tigua on its left bank. Then it turns toward the 
west, passes near Linabao, waters the boundaries of Sevilla (Mailag), 
at the same time receiving the waters of the Sauaga and Malupali on 
its right bank, twists with a slow and broad current toward the south- 
east on the confines of Valencia and Lepanto (Salagapon), receives the 
waters of the Culaman and, a little after, those of the Marama on the 
same right bank; again takes its course toward the south, and with 
various windings another Culaman joins it on the left bank not far 
from the confluence of the Mulita, which is the boundary of the Mon- 
teses, Moros, and Manobos. Up to this dividing line, about half of 
its course, it is called Palangui, and the remainder to its mouth is 
called the river Grande, which is navigable in a gunboat. From said 
dividing line the river makes a sweep from northeast to southwest, where 
is found what was the military' post of Catituan, and at the end of the 
bend it receives on the right bank the waters of the Marurugao, the one 
of all its tributaries which carries the most water. After its confluence 
with the Marurugao it again turns toward the south, with marked 
windings, receiving some small tributaries, and passes by the military 
post of Piquit until it reaches the vicinity of Lake Liguasan. Its vol- 
ume being increased by the waters of this great lake, it turns suddenly 
toward the northwest, then almost perpendicular to its general direc- 
tion, which is from south to north, waters Tinucup or Reina Regente, 
receives several tributaries of slight importance, and on reaching 



212 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Tumbao divides into two branches, the larger of which passes through 
Libungan, where the river Caimanes or Libungan joins it, turnj toward 
Cotabato, capital of the district of this name, and with few deviations 
empties its waters into the sea at Illana Bay through the smooth and 
broad north mouth. The left branch, which is somewhat smaller, runs 
from Tumbao to Tabiran, passes through Tamontace, and empties into 
the same bay by the south mouth. Between the two mouths Mount 
Timaco is situated. It is celebrated for its monkeys, which approach 
travelers who visit its slopes. 

During the course of some 470 kilometers, the last two-thirds of 
which is calm, there is found the cascade of Logsocan, near Valencia, 
and that of Salagapon, a little lower down, in the township of Lepanto. 
In this river and in most of its tributaries there are a great many alli- 
gators, or, more properly speaking, crocodiles. 

The tributaries which pour their waters into this powerful river on 
both sides are very numerous, the most important on the right bank 
being the Sauaga, Malupali, Mulita, Marurugao, and Tigua, and on 
the left the Culaman and the Cabacan. 

SAUAGA. 

The Sauaga rises on the eastern slopes of the Quitanglag range, 
within the boundary of Calasungay, on the divide of the waters of the 
basins of the Pulangui and the Tagoloan. Leaping by great rocks in 
the bottom of a deep channel, from Calasungay its course is toward 
the southeast, with several marked bends, until it reaches Oroquieta 
or Balaybalay. Continuing in the same direction it irrigates the 
boundary of Linabo, and after joining with the Malupali contributes 
its waters to the Palangui near Sevilla. 

MALUPALI. 

The Malupali orignates in the western slopes of the Quitanglag and 
in the eastern slopes of the Calutangan, in the divide of the waters of 
the Palangui and the Cagayan. At first it follows a southeast course, 
and in Covadonga or Alanip, where the river of this name joins it, it 
changes its direction toward the east, and near Sevilla unites with the 
Sauaga, as has been said, and empties into the Grande River. 

MARURUGAO. 

The Marurugao is the most voluminous of the affluents of the Palan- 
gui. It descends from the western slopes of the Pinangavonan. follows 
a direction from northwest to northeast, with few deviations in its 
whole course, which is sometimes rapid and among rocks and at others 
quiet, and passing through several settlements of Moros empties its 
waters into the Rio Grande at Dumalasag, alongside of Mount Tinip- 
tiban. It receives, in its course of some To kilometers, the Malitbog, 
Piratan, Lalayan, and other smaller streams. 

MULITA. 

The Mulita is formed from the waters that rush from the eastern 
slope of Mount Pagmnban. It Mows through a small plain, and with 
a course toward the east passes below Mount Colcol, whence, receiving 




p c— vol 3—01 22 



REPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 218 

on its left bank the river Lumagus, it traverses the southern slope of 
Panicsican, soon after uniting with the Palangui. Its length is some 
40 kilometers. Its confluence is the division between the Monteses, 
Manobos, and Moros. The Monteses i nhabit the northeast, the Manobos 
the northwest, and the Moros extend toward the south. 

TIGUA. 

The Tigua has its source in the central-eastern range, follows a 
direction from southeast to northwest, through a broken country 
inhabited by Manobos, and after a short course empties into the 
Palangui, a little lower down than the Bubunanan, a small tributary 
on the right of the same. 

CULAMAN. 

The Culaman rises in the western slopes of the central-eastern range, 
takes an opposite direction to the preceding from northeast to south- 
west, and after a short course empties into the Pulangui, a little 
higher up than the Mulita, on the opposite bank, in front of Mount 
Panicsican. 

CABACAN. 

The Cabacan rises on the northern slopes of Apo, receives tributa- 
ries from the north and south, such as Bacat, Balanan, Maleput, and 
Malebol, and with considerable volume of water empties into the 
Palangui, near Catituan. 

BASIN OF THE AGUSAN. 

The Agusan is the second river of Mindanao and the third in the 
whole archipelago because of its length and volume of water. Its 
basin is formed by the main mountain ranges of the island, almost 
parallel to each other, and it is fed by numerous tributaries, some of 
them with considerable volume of water. This river rises to the east 
of the bay of Davao and on the western slopes of mountains Tapao, 
Tagdalit, and Campalili, of the eastern mountain range. Its general 
direction is from south-southeast to north-northwest, a course which 
is parallel to the two mountain ranges between which it runs, and 
which ends in the bay of Butuan, near the town of this name. From 
its source it passes through Compostela, Moncayo, Jativa, and Patro- 
cinio, settlements of Christianized Manobos. In the first part of its 
course it receives various small tributaries, the principal one among 
them being the Manat, which joins it at Moncayo. At Patrocinio 
it turns toward the west, passes through Veruela, makes a curve 
toward the east, and at the extreme of the bend, near Clavijo, the 
Ihanan empties its waters into it on the left bank, and it forms the 
lakes Cadagun, Dagun, and Sinanat, the Humayan uniting with it on 
its left bank. A little below the last lake the Gibon pours its abun- 
dant waters into it from the right bank. The Agusan, augmented by 
the Gibon, inclines a little toward the northwest, passes through Tala- 
cogon, San Luis, Guadalupe, and San Estanislao, where it makes many 
turns, and a little lower down, on the left bank, the Lubang empties 
into it, which river rises on the eastern slopes of the mountain of the 
same name, and at half a day's journey farther on it makes a sweep, 



214 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

and the Ujut empties into it on the same bank as the preceding tribu- 
tary, opposite Esperanza. From Esperanza to its mouth in Bay 
Butuan the Agusan follows a south-southeast to north-northwest 
course, with fewer windings than in its middle course, passes by 
Nieves, and, having received the waters of the Bugubas on the left 
bank, waters the townships of Amparo and Butuan. After a coarse 
of 403 kilometers it empties, not far from said town, into the bay of 
Butuan. In its course there are several widenings of the channel that 
resemble lakes and that prevent passage along its banks. 

The tributaries of this river are very numerous, as in the case of 
the Palangui, and some of them have considerable volume of water. 
The principal ones on the right bank are Simulao and Gibon, and on 
the left, Ihanan, Humayan, Arganan, and Ujut. 

SIMULAO. 

The Simulao rises in the western slopes of the eastern mountain 
range, on the side opposite to Bislig. Very turbulent at the begin- 
ning, and augmented with several tributaries, such as the Miaga, 
Bay ay an, Bunanan, after watering the villages of San Isidro, Tudela, 
and Trento, it reaches San Jose with a direction from southeast to 
northwest. At this village it divides into two branches, one of which, 
turning toward the west, subdivides into two branches, which after a 
short course join the Agusan, while the other continues its course 
toward the northwest, and a little below the lakes also empties into 
the Agusan. 

GIBON. 

The Gibon is the largest tributary of the Agusan, and descends from 
the same range as the preceding one, gathering the waters from the 
western slopes of Mount Diuata, on the side opposite Jinatuan. Its 
general direction is from northeast to southwest. It crosses Navas 
and Prosperidad, continues in the same course to Borbon, where it 
describes a very marked curve toward the southeast, and at the other 
end of the same it receives the waters of the Suribao, of considerable 
volume, which passes through Novele, and together, taking a westerly 
direction, they empty a little below the Simulao into the Agusan, after 
a course of more than 120 kilometers. 

IHANAN. 

The Ihanan Hows with many windings from the eastern slopes of the 
central eastern range and receives many tributaries in a very broken 
country, such as the Anahanan, Tignaunan, Sampinit, and others. Its 
course is from southwest to northeast as far as the confluence of the 
Sampinit, where it turns to the east and, passing through Gracia, 
empties into the Agusan a little lower down. 

ill MAYAN. 

The Humayan has its origin in the same range as the preceding 
river, but more toward the north. Its direction is from west to east, 
with a great many large curves. It receives the waters of many trib- 
utaries on both sides, passes through Loreto and, directing itself 
toward the northeast, soon after empties between two lakes. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION 215 

ARGANAN. 

The Arganan, although it is shorter and has less volume of water 
than the preceding rivers, gathers its waters from the eastern slopes 
of the same range as the other two. It takes a direction from west to 
east, waters the villages of Asuncion, Sagunto, and La Paz, where it 
turns to the northeast and empties into the Agusan at the same place 
as the Gibon, but on the opposite bank. 

UJUT. 

The Ujut comes from the same mountain range as the preceding, in 
a northeast direction. It receives the waters of the Agsabo, and at 
Remedios the Pusilao, which is of equal volume, joins it, after having 
irrigated the boundary of Milagros, and together they empty into the 
Agusan opposite Esperanza. 

RIVERS TAGOLOAN AND CAGAYAN. 

After the rivers which we have just described the Tagoloan and the 
Cagayan, which empty into the sea on the north coast, are worthy of 
special mention. 

The Tagoloan has its source on the boundary of Oroquieta (Balay- 
balay), on the side opposite the Palangui, and follows a course directly 
contrary to the latter, in a south southeast to north-northwest direc- 
tion. Its most important tributaries are, on the right bank, the Quina- 
puntan, Dumalagui, Amusic, Silo, Malibog, and Quimaya, and, on the 
left, the Dila, Ulugan, Culaman, and the Manguina, proceeding from 
Mount Quitanglag. After a course of some 90 kilometers it empties 
into the bay of Macajalar at the town of its name. 

The Cagayan rises on the opposite slopes of Mount Quitanglag and 
Mount Calutangan, both belonging to the central western range. It 
follows a direction parallel to the Tagoloan and, with a course similar 
to that of the latter, pours it waters, which carry with them auriferous 
sands, into the same bay as the Tagoloan. Its chief tributaries are the 
Cocina and the Tigalan. 

LESS IMPORTANT RIVERS. 

Among the remaining rivers of Mindanao there are still to be men- 
tioned, on account of their relative importance, the following: Gapay, 
Agus, Sintogo, Dapitan, Dipolog, Lubungan, Davao, Tagum, Hijo, 
and some others on the Pacific coast. 

The Gapay rises near Lake Lanao and takes the same direction as 
the Cagayan. It has several tributaries, such as the Mamanga, 
Samagon, and Dulama, and empties into the bay of Macajalar at Point 
Sulauan. Its length is 70 kilometers. The Agus comes from Lake 
Lanao, runs from southeast to northwest, and empties into the bay of 
Iligan. Its course is much shorter than that of the preceding river, 
and its tributaries are of slight importance. The Sintogo rises on the 
southern and eastern slopes of Mount Malindang, follows a course from 
west to east, and, after receiving the waters of the Salag, its principal 
tributary, empties into the bay of Panguii. The Dapitan, Dipolog, 
and Lubungan have their source on the northern and western slopes of 



216 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

the above-mentioned Mount Malindang, and, with a course toward 
the northwest, empty into the sea near the towns of the same names. 
The Davao empties into the bay of the same name. Its small tribu- 
taries rise on the eastern slopes of Apo. The Tagum is more impor- 
tant, and has as tributaries the Libaganon and the Salug, whose affluents 
connect with those of the Agusan, which flow in an opposite direction. 
The short river Hijo ends, as do the other two, in the same bay of 
Davao. On the Pacific coast there are worthy of special mention, on 
account of their extent, the Casauman, Manay, and Caraga, which, 
rising in the mountains of Tagdalit, Campalili, and Tapao, respectively, 
pour their waters into the Pacific near the towns of the same names. 
Near Tago, on the northern coast, the river of the same name empties. 
It has a wide mouth and no mean volume of water. 

LAKES. 

The principal lakes of Mindanao are the following: Lanao orMalanao, 
Buluan, Liguasan, Mainit or Sapongan, Linao, and Panguil. 



The lake of Lanao or Malanao, located in the territory of the same 
name, is inclosed b} r high mountains, which do not, however, prevent 
there being some plains between them and the lake. It is divided into 
three principal regions, namely, that of Bagabao, which includes the 
northeastern and part of the western shore; that of Masco, which 
embraces all the southern part, and that of Unoyon, which extends to 
the southwest. Its only outlet is the river Agus, and in exchange it 
receives on the southeast the waters of the Digosan. Its shores are 
inhabited by hordes of Moros (Mohammedans). 

LIGUASAN AND BULUAN. 

Liguasan and Buluan are two lakes situated between the Volcano 
Apo and the boundary of Catabato, which join and form but one lake 
during the rainy season, and notably increase with their waters the 
volume of the river Grande. 



Mainit or Sapongan, in the district of Surigao, measures 8 miles 
from north to south and (> from east to west. It empties through the 
river Tubay, with a rapid descent, into the bay of Butuan. It is very 
deep and it is supposed to be the crater of an extinct volcano. 



The Lake of Linao forms part of the river Agusan. It increases 
extraordinarily in circumference as soon as the rainy season sets in. 



Finally, the lake of Panguil, in the territory of Misamis, has a 
length from north to south of 7.1 miles and from east to west of 6J 
miles and empties into the bay of Misamis. 






REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 217 

CHAPTER II. 

MIXERO-MEDICHSTAI, WATERS. 

GENERAL IDEA OF PHILIPPINE SPRINGS. 
EXISTENCE OF SPKINGS. 

As we stated in treating of Orography, volcanic action has had such 
a great influence in the formation of the Philippine soil that it is 
readily understood that there must be in it a-multitude of minero- 
medicinal springs, as is in reality the case, although many of them 
still remain unknown from a scientific standpoint. 

EXAMINATIONS MADE. 

Before the year 1885 there had not yet been made any classification 
of the Philippine springs. In 1890 the report of the work of the 
first commission was published in Madrid, and in 1893 that of the 
second and last. From an attentive reading of both volumes it is 
inferred that the physical, chemical, and therapeutical examination of 
some 50 springs is the most complete and thorough that can be made 
in a country in which, as in the Philippines, traveling is so difficult 
and laborious on account of the absolute lack at times of good means 
of communication. Notwithstanding, there are a great many springs 
that have not yet been analyzed. We shall place here first those 
whose analysis is known, and afterwards add the others as they are 
supposed to be constituted. The first are taken from the reports of 
the above-mentioned commissions and are indicated, because it seemed 
to us most convenient, according to the alphabetical order of the 
provinces in which they are found. 



218 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



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REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



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REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



Besides the 50 springs that have been analyzed, there are 117 more, 
well known, although they have not yet been analyzed, which we 
enumerate below: 

Springs whose waters have not yet been analyzed. 



Province or island. 



Location. 



Supposed class. 



Cagayan 

Cagayan 

Cagayan 

Cagayan 

Ilocos Norte 
Ilocos Norte 
Ilocos Norte 
Ilocos Norte 

Abra 

Abra 

Abra 

Bon toe 



Bontoc 

Bontoc 

Isabela 

Benguet 

Benguet 

Benguet 

Benguet 

Benguet 

Quiangan 

Nueva Vizcaya 
Nueva Vizcaya 

Nueva Vizcaya 

Nueva Vizcaya 
Nueva Vizcaya 
Nueva Vizcaya 
Union 



Binatangan 
Principe 



Pangasinan . 
Nueva £cija. 
Nueva jCcija. 
Nueva Ecija. 
Nueva £cija. 
Nueva Ecija. 

Zam bales 

Zambales 

Zambales 

Zambales 

Zambales 

Tarlac 

Bulacan 

Pampanga... 



Bataan . 
Morong. 
Laguna. 



Aparri 

Aparri 

Aparri 

Al S. de la punta Escarpada . 

Bangui 

Nagpartian , 

Yintar (Bisaya) 

A tres kilometros de Bisaya 
San Guillermo (en el rio) . . 

Rio Yenin 

Balatoc (rio Pascil) 

Sadanga 



Mainit 

Talubin 

Angadanan 

Buguias (Padungay) 

Buguias (Asin) ../. 

Buguias (al Oeste) 

Daclan (al ONO.) 

Daclan (Asin) 

Buyanbuyan (en el monte al Oeste) 

Bayombong (en la loma) 

Bambang ( Arnigui No. 1) 

Bambang (Amigui No. 2) 

Monte Blanco (Asin) 

Ihin 

Dagol 

Amsac6n (rio Bued) 

Quelingan (rio Dicasignan) 

Baler (rios Baler y Caliselan) 

Aguilar 

Pantagamban (Cabuyao) 

Pantagamban ( Cadaclan ) 

Cuyapo (cerro Bancay) 

Santor (Camaboy) 

San tor (arroyo Daguan ) 

Dasol 

Palauig 

Iba 

Cabangan (Calumejan) 

Si'ibic 

Moriones 

San Rafael (camino de Daang-Partida) 
P6rac (hacienda de Pias) 



M6rong (origen del rio Morong) 

Tana; (rio Lanatin) 

Calamba (Bocal) 



Indang (Arzobispo) 

Tiaong 

Guinayangan 



Cavitc 

Tayabas 

Tayabas 

Batangas I Lipa (Tat6n) 

Batangas [baan (Pangao) 

Batangas ! Taysan 

Batangas i Ban Juan do Bocboc 

Arabos Camariiics Caramoan 

Ambos Camarines Ban Fernando I Mainit) 

Albay Daraca I Budiao) 

a I hay Camalig 

Albay | Legaspi (Marisbiris) 

Alhay Manito (punta Cauit) 

Albay i Bulan (Lalisaga) 

Mlndoro Bubaang 

Mlndoro NaujAn (entre el mar y la Laguna Naujan), 

Mlndoro Bulalacao I Damagan i , 

Marlnduque Boac (Sabang) 

M a rind in j ne ' (iasan ( Hnena vista ) 

Marlnduque i Maii)iig 

Saniar I Calbayo.t,' 



Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Saladas y termales. 
Saladasy tennak's. 
Saladas y termales. 
Bicarbonatadas, mixtas. 
Saladas y termales. 
Bicarbonatadas, mixtas. 
Bicarbonatadas, mixtas. 
Bicarbonatadas, mixtas. 
Saladas, deposito ferrugino- 

so con olor sulfhidrico. 
Saladas con olor sulfhidrico. 
Saladas con olor sulfhidrico. 
Termales. 

Cloruradas, sodicas. 
Cloruradas, sodicas. 
Cloruradas, sodicas. 
Sulfhidricas. 
Cloruradas, sodicas. 
Saladas. 
Saladas. 

Hipertermales, bicarbona- 
tadas, cloruradas, sodicas. 
H ipertermales, bicarl >oi 1 a - 

tadas, cloruradas, sodicas. 
Cloruradas, sodicas. 
Cloruradas, sodicas. 
Cloruradas, sodicas. 
Hipertermales, sulfhidricas, 

cloruradas, sulfatadas. 
Hipertermales, sult'hidrieas, 

cloruradas, sulfatadas. 
Hipertermales, sulfhidricas, 

cloruradas, sulfatadas. 
Termales. 
Termales. 
Termales. 
Saladas. 
Termales. 
Termales. 
Termales. 
Termales. 
Termales. 
Termales. 
Ferruginosas. 
Ferruginosas. 
Ferruginosas. 
Bicarbonatadas sbdieo-mag- 

nesicas. 
(?) 

Bicarbonatadas, calcicas, 

cloruradas. sodicas. 
Sulfurosas, liicarhoiia tadas. 
Ferruginosas. 
Ferruginosas. 
Ferruginosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Siliceas. 
Siliceas. 

Termales. 

Termales. 

Cloruradas, sodicas. 
Cloruradas, sodicas. 
Cloruradas, sodicas. 

Cloruradas, sodicas. 

Termales. 



EEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. ^21 

Springs whose waters have not yet been analyzed — Continued. 



90 

91 
92 
93 
94 
95 
96 
97 
98 
99 
100 
101 
102 

103 
104 
105 
106 
107 
108 
109 
110 
111 
112 
113 
114 
115 
116 
117 



Province or island. 



Samar 

Samar 

Samar 

Calamianes. 

Capiz 

Antique 

Antique 

Antique 

Iloilo 

Iloilo 

Iloilo 

Iloilo 

Leyte 

Leyte 

Leyte 

Leyte 

Leyte 

Leyte 

Levte 

Cebu 



Location. 



Calbiga 

Calbiga 

Guiaan (en la playa) 

IslaBusuanga (al pie del monte Tundalara) 

Ibajay (rio Panacuyan) 

Barbaza 

Antique (arroyo Apdo) 

Aniniy (punta Siaran) 

Passi (Maasin) 

Dingle 

Aliniodian 

Eubungan 

Caibiran (rio Calambis) 

Masaplop 

Biliran ( punta Tinogdayan ) 

Ormoc (cerca de Dolores) 

Burauen (monte To-od) 

Laguna Jaruanan 

Cabalian ( rio Guintiiluc ) 

Tagobon (Mabuli-Romero) 



Cebii I Asturias (Aguas Calientes) . 

Cebu 

Negros 

Negros 

Negros 

Negros 

Negros 

Negros 

Negros 

Negros 

Negros 

Negros 

Negros 

Negros 



Negros 

Bohol 

Bohol 

Isla de Panglao . . 
Isla de Siquijor.., 
Isla de Siquijor.., 
Isla de Siquijor... 
Islade Siquijor... 

Surigao 

Surigao 

Surigao 

Camiguin 

Misamis I Balingass 

Pigtao \ Pigtao . . . 

Davao Malibato 



Dumanjuc (Nagbata) 

Bacolod 

Murcia 

Sumag 

Bago (barrio de Zaragoza, en 4 parajes) 

La Carlota 

Isabela -. 

Arabian 

Sibulan (al Noroeste) 

Sibulan ( San Antonio) 

Nueva Valencia (Mainit) 

Nueva Valencia (Magano ) 

Dauin (Lagit) 



Dauin (origen del rio de este nombre' 

Guindulman (Boboc) 

Tagbilaran (Dauit) 

Dauis (Bingan) 

San Juan (monte Condoon ) 

Napo 

Tabod 

Cabalaguin 

Tungao 

Placer 

Mainit (Mapaca) 

Catarman 



Supposed class. 



Salobres. 

Bicarbonatadas. 

Ferruginosas. 

Ferruginosas. 

Ferruginosas. 

Ferruginosas. 

Ferruginosas. 

Termales, sulfhidricas. 

Cloruradas, sodicas. 

Cloruradas, sodicas. 

Cloruradas, sodicas. 

Cloruradas, sodicas. 

Cloruradas, sodicas. 

Alumbrosas. 

Sulfurosas. 

Sulfurosas. 

Sulfurosas. 

Sulfurosas. 

Sulfurosas. 

Termales, sulfurosas. 

Termales, sulfurosas. 

Hipotermales, sulfhidricas. 

Hipotermales, sulfhidricas. 

Hipotermales, sulfhidricas. 

Hipotermales, sulfhidricas. 

Hipotermales, sulfhidricas. 

(?) 

Bicarbonatadas. 

Bicarbonatadas. 

Termales, sulfurosas. 

Termales. 

Termales. 

Sulfurosas. 

Hipertermales, sulfatadas, 

cloruradas, sodicas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Ferruginosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Sulfurosas. 
Termales. 



NOTE ON THERMO-MINERAL SPRINGS. 



From the "Memoria Geologico-Minera de las Mas Filipinas" of 
the inspector-general of mines, Mr. Centeno, we take the following: 

We have already briefly indicated, in treating of volcanoes, the existence of sul- 
phurous thermal springs in the settlements of Magangan and Buguias in the district 
of Lepanto. In the distance which separates the settlement of Magangan from that 
of Acual, there are a multitude of jets of sulphurous water with a strong smell 
of rotten eggs and with temperatures varying from 16° to 50° C. One of these 
springs is remarkable, because it throws out almost constantly a great quantity of 
black mud, which has the same odor as the waters, and of the composition of which 
we are ignorant. In the proximity of all these springs a great quantity of sulphur 
has been deposited, which on account of being of no use there, no one has taken the 
trouble to exploit. From Acual one can go to Amblimay, 5 leagues distant, by a 
good and pleasant road, passing by the settlements of Lutap and Cabayan, noted for 
their agricultural wealth and fisheries, and from the latter point Buguias may be 
reached by following the course of the river Agno, which must be crossed many 
times in the short distance of half a league which separates the two towns. The 
village of Buguias is located on the side of the mountain, in which the springs appear 
at a very short distance from it and a little higher up. The water from the 37 jets 
which appear within a very short distance is very salt and of such a high tempera- 



222 EEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

ture that the skin can not stand it more than two or three seconds. From these 
waters the natives extract the small quantity of common salt they need for 
consumption. 

******* 

The province of Batangas is also very rich in mineral waters, for, besides the sul- 
phuric waters of the volcano of Taal, of which we shall speak further on, there are 
several important springs in it. In the township of San Luis, at a place called 
Mainit (hot), some jets of hot water gush from the ground, which leave an abun- 
dant ferruginous sediment. The waters of the brook Panipil, near the town of 
Lemery, are very sulphurous and are used with good results by the natives for cuta- 
neous diseases. In the territory of the same town, on the road which leads to 
Calaca, at a place called Matasnabayan, there are also some springs which are little 
known and used. In the mountains of Taypan also there are hot springs whose 
composition is unknown to us, but which are used by the natives with good results 
for diseases of the bladder and cutaneous diseases. Besides the water is used as an 
efficacious purgative in many cases. Finally, to the southeast of Bauan, near Point 
Cazador, there is another small spring, to which all afflicted with rheumatism and 
paralysis resort in search of relief from their sufferings, and which they usually find. 

The volcano of Taal is found in this same province, in the crater of which there is 
a small lake of water charged with sulphuric acid. 

* * * * * * * 
Very near this interior crater and toward the east a small lake is seen, whose dark- 
green waters emit clouds of sulphurous vapors, and whose shores are formed of lava 
and salts, which must be magnesia, lime, and soda, as we shall soon see from the 
analysis which we shall present of said waters. The extent of this interior lake 
varies frequently, but it is hardly ever less than 60 meters in diameter. 

* * * * * * * 

The interior crater has a circumference of 80 meters, approximately, and in the 
bottom is seen, when one descends by the walls of the old crater, a yellowish liquid 
in a state of violent ebullition, which with subterranean noises appears and disap- 
pears with marvelous rapidity, presenting points of lively combustion and occasion- 
ing the column of vapors which ascend into the atmosphere from the center of the 
large crater. 

The water of the interior lake has the following composition: 

Per cent. 

Sulphuric acid 2. 98 

Hydrochloric acid 3. 16 

Ferruginous oxide 1. 00 

Clay 1 . 04 

Magnesia 0. 20 

Lime 0. 08 

Soda 1. 02 

Water . : 90. 52 



100. 00 



Of the 2.98 parts of sulphuric acid, 2.47 were found free, or not combined. 

In the province of A! bay, near the town of Tivi, and at a place called Jigabo, there 
are several thermic springs of different temperatures, some containing a large quan- 
tity of sulphur, which is precipitated when the sulphurated hydrogen decomposes, 
and others have a gelatinous silica in solution, which the waters on cooling deposit 
on objects dipped into them, incrusting them in a short time with remarkable 
perfection. 

The sulphurous springs appear at several points along the channel of a small stream, 
whose waters, of the ordinary temperature, conveniently mixed with the water from 
the hot springs, make baths of any temperature that may be desired. Underneath 
the round stones which make the bed of the brook there are found small deposits 
of sulphur sublimate, and at certain places in a pasty state and colored by metallic 
oxides, which are used in that locality for paint. The second — that is to say, the 
siliceous springs — appear some 200 meters from the first, and are much more remark- 
able, not only on account of the greater space they occupy, but also on account of 
their very high temperature (108° centigrade) and the very heautiful siliceous con- 
cretions they produce, sometimes consisting of flattened cones with cylindrical ter- 
minations, perfectly joined and with hands of different colors, sometimes forming 
small cylindrical and semi-spherical hollow crystals, wholly filled with quiet and 
transparent hot water. In these waters, with a little care, the purest siliceous incrus- 
tations can he obtained l.y simply putting the melds in them for a few days. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 223 

These thermo-mineral waters, which have not been known very long, have, how- 
ever, begun to be used with astounding success for certain infirmities, and we have 
seen cases of chronic rheumatism and paralysis completely cured in a short time. 



THERAPEUTIC PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN SPRINGS. 1 
ACIDULATED, CARBONIC, FERRUGINOUS, AND BICARBONATED WATERS. 

LANOT SPRING. 

The spring of Lanot is in the village of Colasi, township of Daet, 
province of Ambos Camarines. 

Therapeutic application. — The large quantity of free carbonic acid 
which these waters contain deprives them completely of the disagree- 
able taste characteristic of all ferruginous waters, and as such there 
may be treated by them, with great probability of success, especially 
those morbid states which are characterized by the diminution of red 
corpuscles. 

Assisting the action of the carbonic acid, the bicarbonates of lime 
and magnesia will have a favorable effect on various diseases of the 
digestive organs, especially those which are caused by a defect in their 
regular action. 

Special indications. — Gastralgias, dyspepsias, gastric and intestinal 
catarrhs, ansernia, and chlorosis. 

Use. — Drink. 

ALKALINE-BICARBONATED WATERS. 

SAN RAIMUNDO SPRING. 

The spring of San Raimundo (Calauan) is located in the ward of Sim- 
sian, town of Lemery, province of Batangas. When the natives of this 
neighborhood began to use these waters for the treatment of their dis- 
eases, they gave them such a reputation that from 300 to 400 individ- 
uals bathed in them daily, and in their ignorance they attributed 
marvelous cures to them. 

It is preferable to use these waters in baths, rubbing the skin a great 
deal with the mud from the bottom of the spring, the diseases treated 
by it being so different that it is possible there is not a single one that 
has not been submitted to the test of its efficacy. The indication of 
arsenic, which the analysis shows, gives these waters great value, because 
they are the only ones of their class that the commission was able to 
study. 

Special indications. — Chlorosis, anaemia, chronic metritis, gout, uric 
diathesis, and catarrhs of the genito-urinary mucus. 

Common indications. — Neuralgias, menstrual disturbances, neuro- 
pathic effects, and gastro-intestinal catarrhs. 

Use. — Drink and bathe in. 

Season. — From November to May. 

1 Taken from the "Estudio descriptivo de algunos manantiales minerales de Fili- 
pinas," issued by the commission composed of D. Enrique Abella y Casariego, 
inspector-general of mines; D. Jose de Vera y Gomes, physician, and D. Anacleto 
del Eosario y Sales, pharmacist. Manila. Tipo-Litografia de Chofre y Cia. , 1893. 



224 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



SAN MARIANO SPRING. 

The spring of San Mariano of Nagtanglan is in the town of Pozor- 
rubio, province of Pangasinan. 

Special indications. — Scrofula, tuberculosis, gout, diabetis, rickets, 
and dermatosis. 

Common indications. — Gastro-intestinal catarrhs, dyspepsias, and 
catarrhs of the respiratory and genito-urinary organs. 

Use. — Drink and bathe in. 

Season. — From December to May. 

GAPAS SPRING. 

The spring of Gapas is in the town of Balayan, province of Batangas. 

Special indications. — Rheumatism of slight intensity, gout, and 
hysteria. 

Common indications. — Catarrhs of the stomach and dyspepsias, with 
pyrosis. 

Use. — Drink and bathe in. 

Season. — From November to May. 

SULPHUROITS-SULPHOHYDRIC WATERS. 

MAINIT SPRING. 

The spring of Mainit is in the town of Bosoboso, district of Morong. 

Special indications. — Herpetism, catarrhal affections of the respira- 
tory organs, and habitual costiveness. 

Common indentions. — Lymphatism, visceral rheumatism, syphilis, 
and scrofula. 

Use. — Drink and bathe in. 

Season. — From February to May. 

BICARBONATED-CALCIC WATERS. 
CANDAGUIT SPRING. 

The spring of Candaguit is found in the town of Naga, district of 
Cebu. 

Special indications. — Dermatosis, chronic catarrhs of the genito- 
urinary organs, infarctions of the abdominal viscera, and menstrual 
disturbances. 

Common indication*. — Chronic catarrhs of the respiratory organs, 
dyspepsias, and gastralgias. 

U8t . Drink and bathe in. 

Season. — From November to May. 

CASIPIT AN SPRING. 

The spring of Casipitan de Inamblan is in the town of Malabuyoc, 
disl rid of Cebu. 

Special indications.- Rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, paralysis, pul- 
monary tuberculosis, chronic bronchial catarrh, chronic catarrhs of 
the genito-urinary organs, infarctions of the abdominal viscera, uric 
diathesis, menstrua] disturbances, and leucorrhoea. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 225 



MULAG SPRING. 



This is in the town of Carcar, district of Cebu. 

Special indications. — Dermatosis, chronic catarrh of the genito- 
urinary organs, infarctions of the abdominal viscera, menstrual dis- 
turbances, and leucorrhcea. 

Common indications. — Chronic catarrhs of the respiratory organs, 
dyspepsias, and gastralgias. 



MIXED BICARBONATE D WATERS. 



TAGBAG SPRING. 



The spring of Tagbag or Bolocboloc is in Barili, town of Cebu. 

Special indications. — Dermatosis, chronic catarrhs of the genito- 
urinary organs, infarctions of the abdominal viscera, gout, uric diathe- 
sis, menstrual disturbances, and leucorrhoea. 

Common indications. — Chronic catarrhs of the respiratory organs, 
dyspepsias, gastralgias, and hysteria. 

Season. — From February to May. 



TANON SPRING. 



The spring of Tanon (Mainit) appears in the town of Santander, 
district of Cebu. 

Special indications. — Dermatosis, rheumatism, gout, uric diathesis, 
chronic catarrhs of the genito-urinary organs, and infarctions of the 
abdominal viscera. 

Common indications. — Dyspepsias with pyrosis, chronic gastro- 
intestinal catarrh, catarrhal and chronic ulcers of the stomach, neu- 
ralgias, and hysteria. 



SULPHATED SODIC WATERS. 

QUENSITOG SPRING. 

The spring of Quensitog is in the settlement of Amamasan, com- 
mand of Tiagan. 

Special indications. — Chronic catarrhs of the respiratory organs, 
hemoptysis, incipient tuberculosis, rheumatism, paralysis, herpetic 
and scrofulous dermatosis, and habitual costiveness. 

Common indications. — Verminous affections and visceral infarctions. 

Use. — To drink, bathe in, and inhale. 

Season. — From November to April. 

CAB AD SPRING. 

The spring of Cabad is in Tiquen, district of Lepanto. 

Special indications. — Chronic catarrhs of the respiratory organs, 
hemoptysis, incipient, tuberculosis, rheumatism, paralysis, herpetic 
and scrofulous dermatosis, and habitual costiveness. 

Common indications. — Verminous affections, visceral infarctions, 
and polysarcia. 

Use. — To drink, bathe in, and inhale. 

p c— vol 3—01 23 



226 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



ASIN SPRING. 



This is in Dilog, district of Lepanto. 

General indications. — Chronic catarrhs of the respiratory organs, 
hemoptysis, incipient tuberculosis, rheumatism, paralysis, herpetic 
and scrofulous dermatosis, and habitual costiveness. 



CHLORO-SODIC WATERS. 



SALVADORA SPRING. 



This is found in the district of Benguet. 

Special indications. — Constitutional diseases of the skin and mucoas 
membranes, herpetic and scrofulous dermatosis, bronchio-pulmonary 
catarrhs, rheumatism, paralysis, and l^drargyrisni. 

Common indications. — Visceral infarctions, syphilis, and chronic 
catarrhs of the digestive and biliaiy passages. 



MEABE SPRING. 



The spring of Meabe is in the town of Itogon, district of Benguet. 

Special indications. — Constitutional diseases of the skin and mucous 
membranes, herpetic and scrofulous dermatosis, bronchio-pulmonaiy 
catarrhs, rheumatism, paralysis, and hydrargyrism. 

Common indications. — Visceral infarctions, syphilis, and chronic 
catarrh of the digestive and biliaiy passages. 

BOLABORAN SPRING. 

The spring of Bolaboran appears in the town of Cardona, district of 
Morong. 

Special indications. — Herpetic and scrofulous dermatosis, catarrhal 
affections of the respiratory organs, arthritism, syphilis, and visceral 
infarctions. 

Common indications — Hemorrhoids, chronic catarrhs of the digest- 
ive and biliary passages, traumatic diseases, wounds, and atonic ulcers. 

CHLORATED SOPIOCALCIC WATERS. 

COTABATO SPRING. 

The spring of Cotabato is in the town of this name, capital of the 
fifth district of Mindanao. 

Special indications. — Herpetism, scrofula, and lymphatism in their 
different manifestations in the skin and mucous membranes, goiter and 
indurations of the cellular and glandular tissues. 

Common indications. Secondary and tertiary syphilis, muscular 
and articular rheumatism, infarctions of the abdominal viscera, espe- 
cially of the liver and spleen, and abdominal plethora. 

use. — To drink, bathe in, and inhale, 

CHLORATED, SODIC, BICARBONATED, AND CALCIC WATERS. 

BINOBRESAH SPRING. 

The spring of Binobresan is found in Lian, a town of Batangas. 

Special indications. — Chronic gastro-intestinal catarrh, ulcersof the 
stomach, acid dyspepsia, visceral infarctions, and anorexia. 

Common indications.- Catarrhal states of the respiratory organs, 
hemoptysis, and the initial stage of tuberculosis. ■ 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 227 

SULPHATED, CALCIC, CHLORATED, AND SODIC WATERS. 

CAUAN SPRING. 

This spring is in the town of O'Donnell, province of Tarlac. 

Special indications.- — Rheumatism, gout, uric diathesis, catarrhs 
of the genito-urinary organs, neuropathic diseases, hysteria, and 
neuralgias. 

Common indications. — Lymphatism, scrofula, chronic gastrointes- 
tinal catarrhs, infarctions of the abdominal viscera, acid dyspepsia, 
wounds, and ulcers. 



PAPER NO. IV. 



MINERAL RESOURCES AND GEOLOGY. 



229 



MINERAL RESOURCES AM) GEOLOGY. 



By Geo. F. Becker, U. S. Geologist- 



Nothing approximating to a complete geological reconnaissance of 
the Philippines has ever been made. There were earnest men among the 
Spanish geologists, however, and Messrs. Centeno and Abella deserve 
much credit for what they accomplished with small appropriations and 
little encouragement from the Spanish Government. Visiting geolog- 
ical explorers have also contributed important observations, in par- 
ticular Messrs. Richthof en, Semper, and Drasche. The conditions are 
not all favorable to rapid work. The enormous coast line, estimated 
by the Coast and Geodetic Survey at 11,444 miles, would indeed 
afford great facilities to a geological expedition properly equipped 
with a steam vessel and launches; but none such, I believe, has ever 
been organized. In the interior of the islands roads are few and bad; 
the vegetation is so dense and matted that it is often impossible to 
leave the regular trail excepting by cutting a new path, and the damp, 
motionless atmosphere in the jungle is precisety like that of a hothouse. 
Under such circumstances progress in geological mapping must inevi- 
tably be slow. 

The additions which it has been possible for me to make to the 
geology of the islands are small, in spite of a residence of fourteen 
months. I was not allowed to do any work, except within the mili- 
tary lines of the United States forces, without a special escort of sol- 
diers, which events proved to be anything but unnecessary. Moreover, 
it was only occasionally that the situation justified the authorities in 
placing an escort at my disposition, for deliberate exposure of soldiers' 
lives for the purpose of gaining geological information was not to be 
thought of, although volunteers for such service could have been 
obtained in any number. I made examinations at various points on 
Manila Bay, as well as along the railway from Manila to San Fernando, 
and cruised about Laguna de Bay, touching at many points. I also 
spent a month in Negros and another in Cebu, passed some time at 
Iloilo, touched at Guimaras, visited Jolo, and coasted along the island 
of Mindanao, though without being able to land. 

A report is in preparation in the office of the Geological Survey 
which is intended to embody all that is at present known on the geology 
and mineral resources of the archipelago. In the meantime an out- 
line is presented here in the form of brief memoranda. That on the 
mineral resources was prepared in Manila in September, 1898, at the 
request of Admiral Dewey and as a report to him. 1 It is reproduced 

1 This memorandum appears in the Nineteenth Annual Report, Geological Survey. 

231 



232 



EEPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



here with one or two unimportant changes. A supplemental note 
embodies some pertinent facts extracted from a report to the commis- 
sion recently made by the Jesuit fathers. The memorandum on the 
general geology was addressed to General Otis in September, 1899, at 
the close of field work in the island. 1 

MEMORANDUM ON MINERAL RESOURCES. 

This brief memorandum probabty covers all the main discoveries in 
the geology of the Philippines which are of economic interest. It is 
drawn up from data recorded in the Spanish mining bureau (Inspec- 
cion de Minas), but not published; manuscript mine reports by the late 
William Ashburner ; verbal information obtained in Manila, and various 
technical publications of Semper, Santos, Roth, Drasche, Abella, and 
others. 

Only about a score of the islands are known to contain deposits of 
valuable minerals. These are arranged below in the order of their lati- 
tude, to give an idea of their geographical distribution and to facilitate 
finding the islands on the map. The latitude of the northern end of 
each is taken as that of the island. The character of the valuable min- 
erals stated in the table will afford a general notion of the resources 
of the islands. 

Mineral-bearing islands and their resources. 



IslaiK 



Latitude 


(north 


en 


d). 


o 


, 


18 


0G 


15 


01 


14 


15 


13 


85 


13 


06 


13 


05 


13 


35 


13 


03 


13 


25 


12 


0G 


12 


06 


12 


07 


12 


05 


12 


05 


12 


01 


11 


09 


11 


07 


11 


0(1 


11 


03 


11 


00 


10 


45 


10 


15 


10 


15 


9 


85 


(?) 


6 


30 



Character of mineral resources. 



Luzon 

Polillo 

Catanduanes 

Lubang 

Marinduque 

Mindoro 

Carraray 

Batan 

Rapu-Rapu 

Masbate 

Romblon 

Samar 

Sibuyan 

Capul 

Semirara 

Panay 

Hi limn 

Leyte 

(•(■1)11 

Negros 

Dinagat 

Bono! 

Panaon 

Mindanao 

Calumangan 

Suiu Archipelago 



Coal, gold, copper, lead, iron, sulphur, marble, 

kaolin. 
Coal, gold, iron. 
Gold. 

Gold, copper, lead. 
Lead, silver. 
Coal, gold, copper. 
Coal. 

Do. 

Do. 
Coal, copper. 
Marble. 
Coal, gold. 
Gold. 
Copper. 
Coal. 

Coal, oil, gas, gold, copper, iron, mercury (?). 
Sulphur. 

Coal, oil, mercury (?). 
Coal, oil, gas, lead, silver, iron. 
Coal. 
Gold. 

Do. 

Do. 
Coal, gold, copper, platinum. 
Lead. 

Pearls. 



The distribution of each mineral or metal may now be sketched in 
somewhat greater detail. In many cases the information given in this 
abstract is exhaustive, so far as the available material is concerned. 
The coal fields of Cebu, however, have been studied in some detail by 
Mr. Abella, and in a few other instances more 4 extended information 
has been condensed for the present purpose. 



' Printed in the Twentieth Annual Report of the Geological Survey. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 233 

Coal. — So far as is definitely known, the coal of the Philippine 
Islands is all of Tertiary age, and might better be characterized as a 
highly carbonized lignite. It is analogous to the Japanese coal and 
to that of Washington, but not to the Welsh or Pennsylvania coals. 
Such lignites usually contain considerable combined water (8 to 18 per 
cent) and bear transportation ill. They are also apt to contain much 
sulphur, as iron pyrite, rendering them subject to spontaneous com- 
bustion and injurious to boiler plates. Nevertheless, when pyritous 
seams are avoided and the lignite is property handled it forms a val- 
uable fuel, especially for local consumption. In these islands it would 
appear that the native coal might supplant English or Australian 
coal for most purposes. Lignite is widely distributed in the archipel- 
ago; some of the seams are of excellent width, and the quality of 
certain of them is high for fuel of this class. 

Coal exists in various provinces of the island of Luzon (Abra, 
Camarines, Bataan, Sorsogon). The finest beds thus far discovered 
appear to be those in the small island of Bataan, lying to the east of the 
southern portion of Luzon, in latitude 13° 19'. These seams vary 
from 2 feet 6 inches to 14 feet 8 inches in thickness. Analyses have 
been made in the laboratory of the Inspeccion de Minas, and the 
mean of seven analyses gives the following composition: 

Analysis of coal from Bataan, one of the Philippine Islands. 



Constituent. 


Per cent. 


Water 


13.52 


Volatile matter 


37.46 




44.46 


Ash 


4.56 








Total 


100. 00 







One pound of this coal will convert 6.25 pounds of water at 40° C. 
into steam at 100° C. The heating effect is about three-fourths that of 
Cardiff coal. The same beds are known to exist in other small adjacent 
islands, Carraray and Rapu-Rapu. A number of concessions for coal 
mining have also been granted on the main island of Luzon just south 
of Bataan, at the town of Bacon. No doubt the beds here are either 
identical or at least closely associated with the coal seams in the little 
islands. 

The coal field of southern Luzon is said to extend across the Strait 
of San Bernadino into the northern portion of Samar. Here coal is 
reported at half a dozen localities, but I have been able to ascertain no 
details as to the thickness or quality. 

In Mindoro there are large deposits of coal in the extreme southern 
portion (Bulacao) and on the small adjacent island of Semirara. This 
fuel is said to be similar to that of Bataan. 

The islands of Masbate and Panay contain coal, the deposits of which 
thus far discovered do not seem of much importance. Specimens from 
the southwestern portion of Leyte, analyzed in the laboratory of the 
Inspeccion de Minas, are of remarkably high quality, but nothing 
definite about the deposit is known to me. 

The first discovery of coal in the archipelago was made in the island 
of Cebu in 1827. Since then lignitic beds have been found on the 



234 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

island at a great variety of points. The most important croppings are 
on the eastern slope within some 15 or 20 miles of the capital, also 
named Cebu. Though a considerable amount of coal has been extracted 
here, the industry has not been a profitable one hitherto. This is. at 
least in part, due to crude methods of transportation. It is said, how- 
ever, that the seams are often badly faulted. 

At Uling, about 10 miles west of the capital, the seams reach a 
maximum thickness of 15^ feet. Ten analyses of Cebu coal are at my 
disposal. They indicate a fuel with about two-thirds the calorific 
effect of Cardiff coal, and with only about 4 per cent ash. Large 
quantities of the coal might, I suspect, contain a higher percentage 
of ash. 

The island of Negros is nearly parallel with Cebu and appears to be 
of similar geological constitution, but it has been little explored, and 
little of it seems to have been reduced to subjection by the Spaniards. 
There are known to be deposits of coal at Calatrava, on the east coast 
of Negros, and it is believed that they are of important extent. In 
the great island of Mindanao coal is known to occur at eight different 
localities, but no detailed examination of any kind appears to have 
been made. Seven of these localities are on the east coast of Minda- 
nao and the adjacent small islands. They indicate the presence of 
lignite from one end of the coast to the other. The eighth locality is 
in the western province, called Zamboanga, on the Gulf of Sibuguey. 

Petroleum. — In the island of Cebu petroleum has been found asso- 
ciated with coal at Toledo on the west coast, where a concession has 
been granted. It is also reported from Asturias, to the north of Tol- 
edo, on the same coast, and from Algeria to the south. Natural gas 
is said to exist in the Cebu coal fields. On Pana}^ too, oil is reported 
at Janinay, in the province of Iloilo, and gas is reported from the same 
island. Petroleum, highly charged with paraffin, is also found on 
Ley te, at a point about 4 miles from Villaba, a town on the west coast. 

Gold. — Gold is found at a vast number of localities in the archipel- 
ago, from northern Luzon to central Mindanao. In most cases the 
gold is detrital, and is found either in existing water courses or in 
stream deposits now deserted by the current. These last are called 
"aluviones" by the Spaniards. It is said that in Mindanao some of 
the gravels are in an elevated position and adapted to hydraulic min- 
ing. There are no data at hand which indicate decisively the value of 
any of the placers. They are washed by natives, largely with cocoa- 
nut shells for pans, though the batea is also in use. 

In the province of Abra, at the northern end of Luzon, there are 
placers, and the gravel of the river Abra is auriferous. In Lepanto 
there are gold quartz viens as well as gravels. Gold is obtained in 
this province close to the copper mines. In Benguet the gravels of 
the river Agno carry gold. There is also gold in the province of 
Bontoc and in Nueva Ecija. The most important of the auriferous 
provinces is Camarines Norte. Here the townships o( Mambulao, 
Paracale, and Labo are especially well known as gold-producing locali- 
ties. Mr. Drasche, a well-known German geologist, says that there 
were Too natives at work on the rich quartz veins of this place at the 
time of his visit, about twenty-five years ago. At Paracale there are 
parallel quartz veins in granite, one of which is 20 feet in width and 
contains a chute in which the ore is said to assay 38 ounces of gold to 
the ton. One may suspect that this assay hardly represented an aver- 



EEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 235 

age sample. Besides the localities mentioned, many others in this 
province have been worked by the natives. 

The islands of Mindoro, Catanduanes, Sibuyan, Samar, Panay, Cebu, 
and Bohol are reported to contain gold, but no exact data are accessible. 

At the south end of the small island of Panaon, which is just to the 
south of Leyte, there are gold quartz veins, one of which has been 
worked to some extent. It is 6 feet in thickness and has yielded from 
$6 to $7 per ton. 

in the island of Mindanao there are two known gold-bearing dis- 
tricts. One of these is in the province of Surigao, where Placer and 
other townships show gravels and veins. The second district is in the 
province of Misamis. Near the settlement of Iponan, on the Gulf of 
Macajalar, there are said to be many square kilometers of gravels car- 
rying large quantities of gold, with which is associated platinum. 
The product of this district was estimated some years since at 150 
ounces per month, all extracted by natives with bateas or cocoanut- 
shell dishes. 

Copper. — Copper ores are reported from a great number of locali- 
ties in the Philippines. They are said to occur in the following islands: 
Luzon (provinces of Lepanto, Benguet, and Camarines), Mindoro, 
Capul, Mas bate, Panay (province of Antique), and Mindanao (province 
of Surigao). Many of these occurrences are probably unimportant. 
The great island of Mindanao, being practically unexplored, is full of 
possibilities, but as yet no important copper deposit is known to exist 
there. An attempt was made to work the deposit in Masbate, but no 
success seems to have been attained. On the other hand, northern 
Luzon contains a copper region which is unquestionably valuable. 
The best-known portion of this region lies about Mount Data, a 
peak given as "2,500 meters? " in height, lying in latitude 16° 53' N., 
longitude 120° 58' east of Greenwich, or 124° 38' east of Madrid. The 
range of which Data forms one peak trends due north to Cape Lacay- 
Lacay, and forms a boundary for all the provinces impinging upon it. 

Data itself lies in the province of Lepanto. In this range copper 
ore has been smelted by the natives from time immemorial, and before 
Magellan discovered the Philippines. The process is a complicated 
one, based on the same principles as the method of smelting sulpho- 
salts of this metal in Europe and America. It consists in alternate 
partial roasting and reduction to "matte" and eventually to black 
copper. It is generally believed that this process must have been 
introduced from China or Japan. It is practiced only by one peculiar 
tribe of natives, the Igorrotes, who are remarkable in many ways. 

Vague reports and the routes by which copper smelted by natives 
comes to market indicate that there are copper mines in various por- 
tions of the Cordillera Central, but the only deposits which have been 
examined with any care are those at Mancayan (about 5 miles west of 
Mount Data), and two or three other localities within a few miles of 
Mancayan. The deposits of Mancayan are described as veins of rich 
ore, reaching 7 meters in width and arranged in groups. Mean assays 
are said to show over 16 per cent of copper, mainly as tetrahedrite 
and allied ores. The gangue is quartz. The country rock is described 
as a large quartzite lens embedded in a great mass of trachyte. An 
attempt has been made by white men to work these deposits, but with 
no considerable success. The failure does not seem to have been due 
to the quality or quantity of ore found. 



236 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Lead and silver. — A lead mine has been partially developed near the 
town of Cebu, on the island of the same name. 

The most important deposit of argentiferous galena is said to be at 
Torrijos, on the small island of Marinduque (latitude 13° 6'). A metric 
ton, or 1,000 kilograms, is said to contain 96 grams of silver, 6 grams 
of gold, and 565.5 kilograms of lead. 

In Camarines, a province of Luzon, lead ores occur, but are worked 
only for the gold they contain. 

Iron. — There is iron ore in abundance in Luzon, Cebu, Panay, and 
doubtless in other islands. In Luzon it is found in the provinces of 
Laguna, Pampanga, and Camarines Norte, but principally in Bulacan. 
The finest deposits are in the last-named province, near a small settle- 
ment named Camachin, which lies in latitude 15° 7', and longitude 
124° 47' east of Madrid. A small industry exists here, wrought iron 
being produced in a sort of bloomery and manufactured into plow- 
shares. The process has not been described in detail, so far as I know. 
It w T ould appear that charcoal pig iron might be produced to some 
advantage in this region. The lignites of the archipelago are probably 
unsuitable for iron blast furnaces. 

Quicksilver. — Rumors of the occurrence of this metal in Panay and 
Leyte have failed of verification. Accidental losses of this metal by 
prospectors or surveyors sometimes lead to reports of the discovery 
of deposits, and ochers are not seldom mistaken for impure cinnabar. 

Nonmetallic substances. — Sulphur deposits abound about active and 
extinct volcanoes in the Philippines. In Luzon the principal sulphur 
deposits are at Daclan, in the province of Benguet, and at Colasi, in 
Camarines. The finest deposit in the archipelago is said to be on the 
little island of Biliran, which lies to the northwest of Leyte. 

Marble of fine quality occurs on the small island of Romblon (lati- 
tude 12° 6'). It is much employed in churches in Manila for baptismal 
fonts and other purposes. Marbles are also quarried at Montalban, in 
the province of Manila, and at Binangonan, in the province of Morong. 

There are concessions for mining koalin at Los Banos, in Laguna 
province. 

Pearl fisheries exist in the Sulu Archipelago, and are said to form 
an important source of wealth. 

SUPPLEMENTAL NOTE. 

The Jesuit Fathers report the sulphide of antimony (stibnite) as 
occurring at Paracale, in the province of Camarines, and as found 
also in Zambales province. It does not appear whether in either case 
the mineral is sufficiently abundant to be regarded as an ore deposit. 
So, too, zinc, both as the sulphide and as silicate, exists at Paracale. 
seemingly in connection with lead ores and gold. Such information 
as I have would point to the conclusion that the zinc ores are to be 
regarded rather as metallic gangue minerals than as separate deposits, 
but my information is insufficient to decide this question definitely. 

Deposits of rock salt occur in Mount Blanco and Bamban (Nueva 
Ecija), in Calamba (Laguna), and in Placer (Surigao. Mindanao). As 
might be supposed, the natives extract much of their salt from the 
sea water. Niter is found in caves at some points in the Philippines, 
very probably originating in the dung of bats and other animals. It 
has been collected by the insurgents for the manufacture of guupow- 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 237 

der. Among the localities where it is known are the small island of 
Masapilit and the town of Placer, in Mindanao. 

Beautiful serpentine is found in Santa Cruz (Zambales), and the 
same mineral is widely distributed in the islands. Gypsum is plentiful 
in the eastern part of the central range of Luzon. Opal is said to 
occur at Binangonan (Morong) and at Catbalogan, in the island of 
Samar. This mineral is a very common one in volcanic regions; but 
the valuable variety, fire opal, is rare. Lithographic stone is found 
at San Mateo, province of Manila. Should this turn out to be of good 
quality and in large blocks, the deposit would be a treasure. 

The clays of Los Banos (Laguna) and of Maunrigao (Surigao, Min- 
danao) are said to be comparable with the best Chinese and Japanese 
kaolins. If this is true, it would be easy to import expert potters 
from those countries. Asphalt is reported in Luzon in Camarines, 
between Lakes Buhi and Bato, as well as in Mindanao at Hinatuan, in 
the province of Surigao. 

MEMORANDUM ON GEOLOGY. 

Much office work must be done on the specimens collected and much 
literature abstracted before all of the information at my command on 
the geology of the Philippine Islands can be systematically presented. 

So far as my observation or my information goes, the geological 
history of the whole group is similar. I have seen that the Post- 
Tertiary gradual upheaval, presently to be described, is common to 
Jolo, Mindanao, Luzon, and the intermediate islands; and descriptions 
leave little doubt that the Philippines belong, and have long belonged, 
to a single geological and biological province. 

Prior to the Tertiary epoch the Philippines consisted of slates and 
igneous masses, the age of which is as yet unknown, no fossils having 
been detected in these ancient rocks. They are now to be found chiefly 
in the northern and eastern ranges of Luzon, but appear to be repre- 
sented also by some limited occurrences in Cebu, and seem to form the 
walls of the gold-bearing quartz veins of the province of Surigao, in 
the northeastern portion of Mindanao. They are doubtless in reality 
widely distributed, but in most localities are buried beneath more 
recent formations. 

During the Eocene, or earliest Tertiary, the archipelago must have 
consisted h rgely of swamps and shallow seas, perhaps not very dif- 
ferent from those now existing in the same region. Limestones were 
formed at some distance from the coasts, shales and sandstones were 
laid down near the shores, and accumulations of vegetable matter 
grew in the swamps. These last were covered by mud, and, in the 
almost total absence of free oxygen, 'they were gradually converted into 
lignite, probably the most valuable mineral asset of American India. 

At the close of the Eocene a great crumpling and upheaval took 
place, which was felt from Switzerland to the Philippines, and perhaps 
most of all in the Himalayas, where marine Eocene beds now stand at 
an elevation of 16,000 feet above the sea. In these islands the Eocene 
strata are frequently thrown into a nearly vertical position and some- 
times are actually overturned. In the Visayas the axis of upheaval 
trended a little east of north, corresponding to the direction of greatest 
extension of the islands of Cebu and Negros. These disturbances were 
accompanied by much faulting and it is believed by somemetamorphism. 
Intrusions and extrusions of igneous rocks seem to have accompanied 



238 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

this upheaval, but no satisfactory study has yet been made of the 
phenomena, good exposures being rare. 

During the remainder of the Tertiary the islands appear to have 
been above water. Miocene and Pliocene strata have not been detected 
with certainty, though some traces of such beds will probably be 
discovered in future investigations. Near Jolo I found strata which 
appeared to be younger than the Eocene and older than the Recent 
period. In the main, the area of the Philippines was probably then 
continental, and there is zoological evidence of a land connection with 
the Asiatic continent, probably by way of Borneo, during the Middle 
Tertiary. This connection did not persist to the close of the Tertiary, 
however, and to its rupture are ascribable the extraordinary peculiari- 
ties of animal life in these islands, evolution here having been left to 
take its own course undisturbed by invasions. 

The subsidence which cut off immigration of the lower animals con- 
tinued, seemingly, till somewhere about the close of the Tertiary, and 
long after Homo sapiens had made his appearance in the Malay Archi- 
pelago. This group also was very probably already inhabited during 
the Pliocene, possibly by the ancestors of the Negritos. This is a mat- 
ter which requires careful investigation, for in the opinion of my late 
famous colleague, O. C. Marsh, this archipelago is likely to have been 
one of the earliest haunts of the human species. 

When the elevation was at its minimum the archipelago was reduced 
to a group of small, hilly islets, four of which existed within the area 
now occupied by the island of Luzon. Cebu was almost completely 
submerged. 

At or before the period of maximum subsidence, began a series of 
eruptions which has not yet closed. Mayon Volcano, in southern Luzon, 
had a violent eruption in 1897. It is probably the most beautifully 
s}^mmetrical volcanic cone in the Avorld, and the truncation at the top, 
due to the crater, is scarcely sensible. 1 The work done in fusing lavas 
and ejecting ash is probably a manifestation of the energy involved in 
the mighty earth throes which bring about regional upheavals with 
incidental subsidences. The earlier of the eruptions under discussion 
were largely submarine, and vast additions were made to the super- 
ficial material of the archipelago by these outflows, especially in the 
central and southern portions of Luzon. The ejecta include andesites, 
rhyolites, basalts, and probably other less common rock species. 

The period of upheaval, once initiated, does not seem to have been 
interrupted by any era of subsidence, and the modern coral reefs give 
evidence that it is still in progress. It is said that uplifts accompany- 
ing earthquakes have actually been observed by the Spaniards, and the 
earthquakes themselves are spasmodic jars in the process of elevation. 
The, elevation has not been, properly speaking, catastrophic, however, 
for the tremors which may wreck a cathedral are insignificant from a 
terresl rial standpoint. On the whole, the uplift has been very gradual, 
so that even the coral polyp has been able to adjust himself to the 
changing conditions, building outward into deeper water as his old 
home was raised too high for his welfare. In this way nearly the whole 
of ( Vim, to a height of over 2,000 feet, has been covered with a nearly 
continuous sheet of coral which can be followed seaward into living 
reel's. Much of Xcotos has been clothed with a similar mantle. On a 



| The radius of any horizontal section is the hyperbolic sine of the distance from 
this section to the summit. 



EEPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 239 

small scale, also, off the coasts of these islands, and particularly about 
Mactan, reefs can still be studied in every stage of upheaval, all those 
portions being dead which are exposed to the air even at the lowest 
tides. In southern Luzon and to the northward of Lingayen Bay 
similar phenomena can be observed. 

Although upheaval does not appear at any time since the close of 
the Tertiary to have given way to subsidence, there have been repeated 
pauses in the uplifting process. On exposed coasts these pauses are 
marked by benches eaten into the land by the action of the waves. 
Thus the southern ends of Cebu and Bohol are terraced from top to 
bottom, each terrace being an old bench cut out of the rock mass by 
stormy seas. Pauses in the uplifting process are also marked by, a 
rude stratification of the corals. Even in the interior of the islands ter- 
races indicative of uplifts are frequently visible. Some of them repre- 
sent base levels of erosion, others are ancient coral reefs which have 
been checked in their upward growth b} r reaching the surface of the 
water. In short, terraces constitute one of the most prominent topo- 
graphical features of the archipelago. 

The slowness of the uplift is emphasized by the stupendous accumu- 
lation of coral in these islands. Coral is, of course, mainly composed 
of calcium carbonate, and this is formed by the coral polyp from the 
lime salts dissolved in the sea. Now, the sea contains a very minute 
proportion of lime salts (chiefly the sulphate, or gypsum), say a tenth 
of 1 per cent, and corals are necessarily of slow growth because of the 
scantiness of the material with which they build. The sheets of coral 
on uplifted areas seem to have a tendency toward a nearly uniform 
thickness, approximating to 100 feet. This is explicable from the 
habits of the coral animal, which does not grow at a greater depth 
than 15 or 20 fathoms. Unlike merely sedimentary strata, the coral 
follows the topograph} 7 of the rising surface along a contour of which 
it grew. Where muddy waters or frequent eruptions befoul the sea 
there are no coral reefs. 

When the uplift began, say ten or twelve thousand years ago, the 
island shores were steep and the sea about them was relatively deep, so 
that an upheaval of 100 feet added but little to the area of the islands. 
As the amount of uplift increased to something approaching the mean 
depth of the circumambient sea, the area of the land increased in a far 
greater ratio to the increment of upheaval. The last rise of 100 feet 
has rescued from the seas the most valuable part of the archipelago. 
Examination of the charts will show that a fresh rise of 100 feet would 
add a further area, which, though important, would be less important 
than the actual lowlands of the Philippines. The plateau on which the 
island stands is now mostly above sea level. 

Area has been added to the land by the formation of deltas at 
the mouths of the rivers, a process which has been greatly assisted by 
the mangrove trees and the nipa palms. These grow in the water in 
all favorable situations, and hold back the solid contents of the streams, 
adding their own debris to the accumulation. Along the eastern shore 
of Manila Bay the so-called "estero" or " bayou" country consists of 
the confluent deltas of the various rivers flowing into the bay. 

To the eastward of the estero country the ground passed over by 
General MacArthur's army from Manila to San Fernando consists of 
low, base-leveled terraces, all more or less dissected by water courses. 
These almost always have somewhat high and steep banks. They are 



240 KEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

in fact engorged, as is characteristically the case in a country under- 
going upheaval; for upheaval increases the potential energy of the 
flowing water and leads to erosion of the stream beds. 

In my published memorandum on the mineral resources of the Phil- 
ippines, 1 I have briefly noted the distribution of valuable minerals. 
The distribution of gold deposits indicates that this metal, when in 
place, is associated with the older rocks, and it will probably be found 
that the last great addition to the auriferous deposits was an incident 
of the Post-Eocene upheaval. In some parts of the world gold is 
found in neo-volcanic rocks, as at Bodie in California, and elsewhere. 
I have learned of no such occurrence in these islands. Where streams 
in the Philippines cut into the older rocks they seem nearly always to 
carry a little gold, which the natives have been exploiting time out 
of mind. 

There is a very general impression that Mindanao is a rich aurifer- 
ous region, though little definite information is current on the subject. 
The absence of information seems to add the attractions of the imagi- 
nation to the tales of a few prospectors. It is a fact, to which attention 
should be called, that each of the two auriferous provinces of Mindanao — 
viz, Surigao andMisamis— has been reported upon by a competent expert 
and that neither expert found anything to excite his enthusiasm. There 
is gold there, beyond a doubt, and the natives have been extracting it 
on a modest scale, yet with no little skill, for centuries. The informa- 
tion at hand points to very moderate auriferous resources, comparable 
with those of the Carolinas and Georgia rather than with those of 
Colorado or California. 

Luzon, so far as I can judge from reports, is as rich in gold as Min- 
danao. It is probable enough that a fair number of spots exist in which 
capital invested in gold mines will find reasonable renumeration, but I 
fear that any "rush" to the gold fields will involve great disappoint- 
ment. The whole archipelago has an area almost the same as that of 
Arizona. There is nothing known which indicates that the islands 
contain more gold than this Territory. 

The copper doposits of Lepanto seem rich and extensive, but very 
expensive roads will be needed to render them available. The high 
quality of some of the iron ores of Luzon is beyond question, but the 
lignite of the islands is not adapted to iron smelting. A moderate 
industry could be based on charcoal smelting, while the pig iron could 
be converted into steel and manufactured by the use of furnaces burn- 
ing lignite gas. 

The so-called coal is a good lignite. Its heating effect is from two- 
thirds to three-fourths that of the best steaming coal. There are great 
quantities of this fuel, and much of it could probably be delivered at a 
profit on vessels at $2.50 (Mexican) per ton. The lignite is at least as 
good as the Japanese kw coal," which is also lignite. The Japanese fuel 
often brings $9 or $10 (Mexican) in Manila, and is now much dearer; so 
that unless the price of such coal were to fall enormously, great profits 
await the coal miner. The development of a coal industry is of great 
importance to the industries of the archipelago, and though our naval 
vessels would prefer Cardiff or Pocahontas coal, they could use Philip 
pine lignite in case of need. 

'NiiiHrcntli Ann. \ic\A. ('. S. Geol. Survey, Part VI Continued, 1898, pp. 687-S8& 



PAPER NO. V. 



BOTANY 



p c— vol 3—01 24 241 



INTRODUCTION, 



As the Philippine Archipelego, situated between 5 and 21 degrees 
north latitude, is made up of a large number of islands, has great vari- 
ations in the elevation and composition of its land, and is subject to 
various winds, it necessarily presents marked variation in its vege- 
tation. 

In general the flora is tropical. In the south of Mindanao, or in 
the Jolo Archipelago, it is beyond doubt equatorial, as is shown by 
the presence of the durian (Durio zibethinus) and the mangosteen 
(Garcinia mangostana). In Mindanao this character gradually disap- 
pears, preserving the tropical form as far as the north of Luzon. The 
dividing line of these two floras is about at the parallel of Manila, 
as. from there toward tin 1 south, such tropical families as Myrtacese, 
Lauracea?, Urticacea?, Araeea?, and Orchidaceae abound, while toward 
the north the pine, not found in the south, covers considerable areas, 
especially in the northwest of Luzon. 

So, too, there are some notable differences in the vegetation on the 
Pacific coast and that of the China Sea. In the former region the rains 
are more copious, while in the latter, which is covered with compact 
mountain ranges, and which has a more limited agricultural zone, 
there are magnificent and splendid virgin forests containing an abun- 
dance of ferns, orchids, palms, aroids, and Melastomacese, and although 
the fir tree is not found, others, such as the almaciga (Agathis lorantm- 
folia), various species of Podocarpus, and the agojos (Casuarina equi- 
setifolia) grow luxuriantly. So, too, in regions where the hand of 
man has not interfered with nature, two kinds of vegetation are seen; 
either the land is covered with extensive forests or with thick grass 
of various species, the greater part belonging to the genera Saccharum, 
Anthistiria, and Imperata. And, finally, a study of the distribution 
of species in relation to various latitudes and altitudes shows the 
Philippine flora quite analogous to that of Sumatra and different from 
that of Java, there being a less number of species here than in 
Sumatra. It is worthy of note, also, that identical species are less 
abundant on the Pacific coast than on the coast of the China Sea. 

The acceptable classification made by D. Sebastian Vidal makes a 
division into two classes: Forest flora and agricultural flora. The 
first is divided as follows: (a) Mangrove swamp, (b) Vegetation along 
the seashore, (c) Vegetation in the lowlands of less than 200 meters 
altitude, (d) Vegetation of the zone between 200 and 1,000 meters of 
elevation, (e) Of the mountain zone between 1,000 and 1,800 meters. 
(f) Of the higher mountain zone between 1,800 and 3,000 meters. 
The second class is made up of various cultivated plants of commercial 
or other uses. 

It seems, however, both practical and convenient to leave this scien- 
tific classification, and to divide this treatise into chapters as herein- 
after appear. 

243 



BOTANY, 



CHAPTER I. 

GRAMINEOUS PLANTS (GRASSES). 

We include in this group species of the family of grasses which are 
of great interest in the Philippine Archipelago, serving as food for 
man and beast, and as articles of common use for the natives. Among 
these are rice and corn, grass and reed grass, and the common cane or 
bamboo. 1 

Palay, or rice {Oryza sativa L.). 

This cereal, native to the marshy regions of hot countries, is one of 
the most important of this class as a food stuff and industrial product. 
It is the principal food of all Eastern peoples. In the Philippines it is 
the principal crop upon which the sustenance of the indigenous popu- 
lation depends. All the other crops together would not be sufficient 
to cover the loss of this one, upon which the poor classes depend. A 
large number of varieties exist, as was seen in the collection presented 
by D. Regino Garcia at the Colonial Exposition, in Amsterdam, and 
which contain more than 120 varieties. The collection of 120 varieties 
presented by Senor Garcia at the Exposition of Paris in 1878, received 
the only gold medal presented by the judges to Philippine exhibitors. 
Two main divisions are made, according to the manner of cultivation. 
First, those varieties cultivated on the lowlands (irrigated lands), and 
second, those cultivated on uplands (dry lands), the latter being more 
numerous. Rice is supposed to be of Asiatic origin, and is the plant 
concerning whose cultivation the most ancient documents exist. Its 
introduction into the Philippine Archipelago was much anterior to the 
discovery of the islands. Morisqueta, or rice boiled in water without 
salt, is looked upon by the natives in the same way as we look upon 
bread. 

The varieties of greatest importance are: Mimis. greatly esteemed 
on account of its white, transparent grain and exquisite flavor; Dumali, 
an early variety; Bontot-cabayo, and others which may be cultivated 
either on lowland or on highland. 

The cultivation of rice is one of the few occupations which the native 
pursues with care, although theyxio not have at their command every- 
thing necessary to make the production most profitable. For the 
cultivation of lowland rice the ground is divided into little parcels, 
generally rectangular, and having a slight inclination, and which are 
surrounded with little dikes called piiapil, which serve to retain the 
water. The rice is sown by hand in little beds of moist earth. This 
seed rice is selected during the springtime. While these seed beds are 

l Wedo n"t Include sugarcane in this group, considering it a commercial product 

which will he included iii the last group. 

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REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 245 

sprouting the flooded lands are worked, the carabao (water buffalo), 
which serves admirably for this purpose, being used. In this way the 
soil is worked into a soft mud. When the rice has grown to a height 
of 20 centimeters it is pulled from the beds, formed into bundles, and 
taken to the place where it is to be transplanted. Regular lines of little 
holes are made in the softened earth, in each of which is placed a little 
bunch of six or seven stalks. The soil is not fertilized, nor is any 
other care given to the crop. When harvest time comes, which is 
usually in August, or from that time on, according to the variety of 
rice and the character of the soil, the plants are cut one by one, by 
means of a little sickle, or the yatap. This latter instrument consists 
of a little blade of steel or of tin, semicircular in form, fixed into a 
little handle. 

This palay is now placed in heaps called mandalas. The grain is 
now separated from the straw by thrashing, in which operation water 
buffalo play an important part. At other times this thrashing is 
accomplished by pounding the straw in a large wooden mortar, called a 
lusong, or simply by striking the bundles against a stone. When there 
is sufficient wind the grain is separated from the straw and the dust by its 
use. It is finally separated from the husk by pounding it two or three 
times in the wooden mortar, or by making use of a sort of handmill, 
called guilingan. 

On the highlands it is necessary to go over the ground two or three 
times and break up all clods. The seed is sown by hand after the 
first heavy rains, and without other care the crop is finally collected. 
The natives of the interior, and even some of those of the Christian 
towns, are accustomed to plant rice on virgin soil, in the preparation 
of which they are compelled to cut down all trees. Some of these are 
burned and others are used to make fences about the field. 

The rice plant has many enemies, the most important of which is the 
locust, which, when it appears, totally destroys the crops. Another 
insect attacks the young and tender grain, sucking out the juice and 
leaving it completely empt}^. Another enemy is the maya (Munia 
oryzivora, L.), a small bird abundant in the lowlands. Sometimes 
monkeys injure the crop in certain regions. 

The production of rice has diminished in the Philippines on account 
of the increased production which has taken place in adjacent countries. 
The Chinese market, to which formerly a large amount of Philippine 
rice was exported, supplies itself at present with greater economy and 
in greater abundance with the rice from Cochin China. This latter 
place even supplies the Philippines with rice whenever the crops are 
short. Again, lands which formerly produced rice for export are now 
given over to the cultivation of sugar cane with great advantage to 
the general wealth of the country. 

Corn {Zea mays L.). 

Corn is a cereal which sometimes gives abundant crops. It is a 
monoicous plant of great importance on account of its grain, its flour 
making excellent food. It is used likewise as food for cattle, as are 
the leaves and young stalks, which make excellent fodder. And, finally, 
an alcoholic drink, which the Bisayans call pangasi, is made from it. 
It is of American origin, from whence it was carried by the Spaniards. 
At first the natives received it with indifference until, on account of 
frequent losses of the rice crops, they became accustomed to its use, 

p c— vol 3—01 25 



246 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Its cultivation has become quite generalized throughout the archi- 
pelago, especially in those regions where the soil is not altogether 
suitable for the cultivation of rice, as in Cagayan and Isabela. In 
many towns it has taken the place of morisqueta, being reduced to a 
coarse granular flour b}^ means of the guilingan, and then boiled in 
water without salt. 

Zacate (Grass). 

Under this name are included several species of grasses which make 
up the forage of the live stock, especially horses. The chief ones 
of these belong to the genus Leersia. The fields where this grass is 
raised are the objects of much care on the part of the native farmer, 
especially if they are in the vicinity of large centers of population, as 
the returns are excellent. The grass is cut several times a j^ear. 

Cogon (Saccharum hoenigii Ketz). 

This grass reaches the height of 2 meters, forming a sort of forest 
almost impossible to traverse without first making a path, either by 
means of fire or with a knife. The natives, with the object of obtain- 
ing fodder, are accustomed to set fire to these grass fields in the dry 
season. The}^ are thus able to obtain the } r oung shoots, which when 
not more than 18 inches in length are much relished by cattle. In 
regions where the nipa does not grow, cogon is used for thatching the 
houses. 

Sorghum or batad (Holcus sacc'Jiaratus Bl.). 

Although this plant has given excellent results in the United States 
and other places when cultivated for sugar or the production of alcohol, 
in the Philippines it is used only for fodder. This is true of a number 
of other plants belonging to the genera Paspalum, Milium, Panic um, 
Sporolobus, Chloris, Avena, Poa, Bromus, Agrostis, etc., which grow 
on the pastures of the mountains. 

Bamboo. 

Under this name are included various species of cane of the genus 
Bambusa, which are of great importance in the Philippines. The 
principal species are Bambusa diffusa Bl., B. m<>ii<></f//}<i BL. or 
Cauayang quilang B., pungeas Bl.. or Cauayang totoo, Bambusa 
mitis BL, or Taivanse, Bamhusn lima BL, or Alios, and Bambusa 
textoria BL, or Calbang. All of these bamboos are used for many 
things, but the most useful of all is the Cauayang totoo. which at 
times reaches a diameter of more than '20 centimeters and a height of 
more than 12 meters. It is employed principally in the construction 
of native houses, which are often made wholly of bamboo, except for 
the rattan used to tie it together and the cogon used as thatch. The 
posts, floor, rafters, and doors are all made of bamboo, and the native 
is very skillful in working it. Either entire or split into strips, it is 
used in the construction of boats, rafts, bridges, aqueducts, scaffolding, 
vessels of all kinds, baskets, furniture, fishing apparatus, arms, rope, 
etc. This plant, together with the cocoanut tree, the nipa palm, and 
the rattan, are truly providential for these countries. 



Plate X. 




A CLUMP OF BAMBOO. 



CHAPTER II. 

VEGETABLES. 

In this chapter are included those plants of the family Legunrinoste 
which serve as food, those whose tubers are edible, those roots which 
are edible, and, finally, the plants cultivated in the gardens. 

DIVISION A. — LEGUMES. 

Mongo, Frijol, and Others. 

Leguminous plants are of but little importance in this country. One 
of the most commonly cultivated is the mongo {Phaseolus mungo Bl.), 
smaller than the lentil, but of the same flavor, and which is cultivated 
on a large scale, as it is the principal food of man} 7 - towns. The butingui 
{Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is the true kidney bean, which is found in con- 
siderable variety in the garden. The zabache {Phaseolus I unatus L.) is 
also greatly prized. The sitao {Phaseolus caracalla L.) produces a 
vegetable about a foot long. The frijol from Abra {Phaseolus tunki- 
nensis Lour.), and the patani {Phaseolus inamomus L.) are both highly 
prized by the natives. There are also some species of the genera 
Dolichos, Vigna, Pachyrhizus, and Prophocarpus, which produce vege- 
tables or edible seeds less highly esteemed than those of the genus 
Phaseolus. 

DIVISION B. TUBERS. 

Sweet Potatoes {Ipomcea batatas Lamk. ). 

Although the origin of this plant has been much discussed, it is 
believed to have come from America. Its tuber, which is commonly 
called camote, is very suitable for food, and its cultivation is greatly 
favored by mountain races, "which would seem to favor the antiquity 
of its introduction. The plant grows in five or six months, extending 
its shoots in all directions, completely covering the soil with its abun- 
dant leaves, which are likewise edible. When the ground is given 
over to the exclusive cultivation of this plant it is allowed to take root 
in all directions, and as the roots extend and grow the tubers continu- 
ally, they may be dug up for use at any time of the year. When its 
cultivation alternates with that of rice or corn it is necessary to plant 
anew each year, the product usually being of greater value than in the 
previous years. 

The Potato (Solarium tuberosum ~L.). 

This plant originally came from the Andes, and was introduced into 
Spain after the conquest of Peru. After that its use extended over 

247 



248 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

the rest of Europe, especially after the tests by Parmentier, who dur- 
ing the last century demonstrated that the potato was not poisonous, as 
was believed, but that, on the other hand, it was very useful as a food. 
These tubers have about 20 per cent of solid matter, and more than 80 
per cent when desiccated at a temperature of 120 degrees. In Europe 
they form the basis of the food supply of the lower classes, and are of 
industrial value, especially in the manufacture of alcohol. 

In the Philippine Archipelago this valuable tuber has not done well, 
and is only cultivated with success in certain elevated localities, such 
as the District of Benguet. 

DIVISION C. — ROOTS. 

Gabe ( Colocasia esculenta Schott) . 

This plant, introduced a long while ago from Asia, is to-day exten- 
sively cultivated in almost all the islands, especially in the mountain 
regions. Its large roots and young leaves make an excellent food for 
the natives. The badiang, which is cultivated principally in the 
Visayas, has the same uses. There are three principal varieties, the 
best known of which is the variegata. 

Ube, Tuqui, etc. 

Various species of the same genus Dioscorea are found either grow- 
ing spontaneously or being cultivated for their edible roots. Among 
these are the ube (Dioscorea alata), the tuqui (D. saliva L.), the paquit 
(D. divaricata L.), the nami-conot (D. pentapkylla L.), the tongo 
(D. papillaris L.), and others. They all have large roots and some 
times attain enormous sizes. They ma} r be eaten boiled or without 
other preparation than leaving them in water for some days. The 
tuqui and the ube, being most highly prized, are most extensively 
cultivated. The rhizome of this latter makes a healthy food of a 
sweet taste. It is somewhat sour when raw, but is rendered sweet 
and nutritious by boiling. Its cultivation is simple, somewhat similar 
to that of the potato. It is necessary to carefully prepare these 
tubers for eating, for when this is not done they are poisonous. 

DIVISION d. — gard*;n plants. 

Principal Species Cultivated in the Philippines. 

Although the natives do not care much for the cultivation of these 
plants, gardens are found near the large centers of population, gen- 
erally cultivated by Chinese, the products being used by Europeans. 
Among those cultivated are the following: Onions, garlic, asparagus, 
radishes, cabbages, artichokes, endives, peppers, tomatoes, carrots, 
celery, parsley, and tin 4 haras (AnctJtinn /(Vinculum)* a native plant 
whose fruit contains seeds having a sweet flavor similar to anise. Of 
the family Cucurbitacea* there are also a large number of plants which 
are generally eaten boiled. Among these are the common squash, of 
which there are several varieties, the condol (Oucurbita aspera), which 
is oval in shape and \(>vy suitable for making sweets. A variety of 
squash known to the natives as calabasang bilog {Oucurbita sulcata)) 




p c— vol 3—01 26 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 249 

which is of a green color, much prized and extensively cultivated, and 
the tabayag (Lagenarie vulgaris), the meat of which is soft and smooth 
to the touch. The genus Uucumis is represented by no less than four 
species in the Philippines. The tabacog (Cueumis meto), which is the 
true melon, and which, although possessing a delightful aroma, never 
reaches the excellent flavor of those of Europe. The pepino, or 
cucumber, which is eaten boiled or pickled. The patola (Cueumis 
actaugulus), large in size, and eaten green or boiled. The milondaga 
(Cueumis h/zonicus), small in size and with a flavor similar to the 
cucumber, and the watermelon, sandia, or pacuan. 

Albay is the only locality where the strawberry occurs. 



CHAPTER III. 
FIBER-PRODUCING PLANTS. 

IMPORTANCE. 

The so-called textile plants are those which furnish fiber for the 
manufacture of cloth, cordage, etc. They are called industrial because 
of the large number of hands employed in the manufacture of these 
products in the great manufacturing centers. The principal ones 
found in the Philippines are hemp, cotton, the pineapple plant, ramie, 
agave, cabo-negro, rattan, pandan, and palma buri. 

Manila Hemp (Musa textilis'L.). 

This plant is greatly appreciated for the excellent quality of its fiber, 
which constitutes one of the chief articles of exportation. Its princi- 
pal cultivation is in the provinces of Ambos Camarines, Albay, Sorso- 
gon, and Catanduanes, in the islands of Samar and Leyte, and on a 
smaller scale in Cebu, Mindoro, Marinduque, and the north of Minda- 
nao. In Negros it grows well only in the southern part, and in Panay 
the small quantity gathered is of inferior quality. The fiber is 
obtained from the outer of the sheathing leafstalks, which in these 
plants forms the apparent trunk, as in bananas. This sheath is cut into 
lengths and then into strips, which are called sajas. There are many 
varieties of hemp, in some places as man}^ as fourteen. The differ- 
ences between these consist in variations in color in the bulb and lower 
part of the trunk, in the greater or smaller number of shoots, and in 
the development and strength of the fiber. In Albay experts distin- 
guish varieties according to the size of the stalk, the shape and size 
of the leaves, and especially according to the strength of the fiber in 
the sajas. Even though experts recognize these characteristics in each 
variety, it is very difficult to do it at first sight, as the different names 
given to the different varieties in the different localities cause some 
confusion in the determination of them. 

Cultivation. — This plant needs a moist climate, the lack of which is 
sometimes supplied by planting trees, which furnish shade and prevent 
the loss of water, which, by evaporation, is continually going on from 
the broad leaves. 'These trees also aid by drawing moisture to the 
surface by means of their long roots. Trees having high branches. 
narrow leaves, and deep roots are those most serviceable for this pur- 
pose. The land should be open and moist, but not swampy. Sloping 
lands having a clay soil, situated on the hillsides or mountain sides, are 
suited to the cultivation of this plant. The best fertilizer is the refuse 
of the plant Itself left after the extraction of the liher, as this contains 
the same elements which have been taken from thesoil. Other articles, 
such as ashes, or any substance which contains potash and soda, may be 
used. New plants are grown from shoots or suckers, called by the 
Datives saja, which grow about the base of the plant. The plants may 
250 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 251 

be grown likewise and with considerable economy from tubers and 
from seed, but these methods are rarely used. For new plantations 
recently cleared mountain lands are used, a few trees being left for 
shade, the trunks and branches of the others being burned. After 
the ground has cooled the shoots are planted in little holes 1J- or 2 
meters apart. As the little shoots are very slow in growing, some 
other plant is usually sown on the same field to check the growth of 
weeds which might destroy the hemp plant. For this purpose the 
sweet potato is most serviceable. At the end of three years the plant 
has reached its full development, the most suitable time for cutting 
being when the fruit begins to show, as the fiber is then in the best 
condition. The trunk is cut down with a sharp machete or knife. 
The lower part of the trunk and the leaves are then cut off and the 
externa] layers of the plant or those containing the fiber are then 
removed and carried to the workhouse where the fiber is extracted. 

Enemies of the hemp plant. — Two insects, the larvae of which are 
called by the natives tamiloc and amarog, pass through the metamor- 
phosis in the trunk of this plant. The former of these measures about 
4 centimeters in length, the latter li centimeters. A large hole may 
be observed somewhere about the lower part of the plant attacked, 
which soon assumes a yellow color and dries up before reaching half 
its full size. 

Production and prices. — There has been a constant increase in the 
area of land devoted to the cultivation of hemp. It is estimated that 
the annual production of the archipelago is more than 1,000,000 piculs. 
Hemp is classified in commerce in three grades— current, second, and 
colored. The price of the first grade between the years 1885 and 1891 
varied between $17.12, its highest price, and $6, the lowest price, per 
kilogram. The other two classes sell at prices from 25 to 10 per cent 
lower than the first. All of these prices are those of the market of 
Manila, being somewhat less in the provinces. 

The cultivation of hemp began to assume important proportions in 
the Philippines in 1855, at which time it was second in importance among 
articles of export from these islands. It is exported principally to the 
United States and to England, small quantities going to Spain, Aus- 
tralia, Singapore- and China. 

Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum L.). 

This plant is cultivated in the Philippines and the provinces of North 
and South Ilocos, Union, Pangasinan, and Abra. The species cultiva- 
ted are Gossypium herbaceum and G. peremie and Ceiba pentandra. 
The first two are known to the natives as capas and bobuy, and the 
latter as capasanglay. They are respectively herbs, bushes, and trees. 
The capas or herb is the oniy one which is really cultivated and whose 
product is used in the manufacture of cloth. The others are found 
growing wild, the cotton being used only for making pillows and 
mattresses. 

Cultivation and preparation. — The soil should be open, strong, and 
easy to work, and should be deeply plowed and carefully prepared. 
It should be planted, when there is no danger of heavy rains, in fur- 
rows a meter apart, the plants being an equal distance apart in these 
furrows. When the fruit is ripe it is collected and the cotton is passed 
through a series of manipulations, rendering it suitable for the manu- 
facture of cloth. The first operation is the separation of the cotton 



252 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

from the husk, after which the fiber is separated from the seed, to 
which it strongly adheres. This operation is accomplished by the 
means of a little hand machine, called laddit, which is composed of two 
parallel wooden cylinders revolving in opposite directions. The cot- 
ton is passed between the cylinders and separated from the seed. With 
this primitive apparatus one man working ten hours can obtain 3 or 
4 kilograms of clean cotton. The cotton is then spread on drying 
tables, after which it is ready for spinning. 

The enemies of the cotton plant which menace production are 
the curiat, or field cricket; a gra3 T caterpillar which is the larva of a 
butterfly (Noctua mbterranea)', and the larva of Melolontha vulgaris, 
called by the natives abaleng. 

Pineapple (Bromelia ananas L., or Ananasa sativa Lindley). 

A plant of the family Bromeliacese, which is cultivated for its deli- 
cious fruit and for the fiber which is obtained from its leaves. This 
latter is similar to that obtained from the agave. Its origin is tropical 
America, from whence it was spread to Africa, Oceania, and even to 
Europe. The pineapple has about the same geographical distribution 
as coffee, but is grown on some mountains at an altitude not suitable 
for coffee. It requires an even temperature which does not fall 
below 18° C. It will grow on almost any kind of ground, but 
gives best results in open, strong soil. It grows from the seed, 
which is sown in parallel lines li meters apart, the individual plants 
being one-fourth meter from each other. In Cuba it is cultivated 
almost exclusively for its fruit, which has an exquisite flavor, and is 
sweet, aromatic, and slightly tart, on account of the presence of malic 
acid, which makes it somewhat indigestible. In the Philippines it is of 
more importance as a textile plant. 

Met hod of obtaining the fiber, — The fruit of the plant is first cut so 
that the leaves may become as long and broad as possible. When 
these leaves are well developed they are torn off and then scraped with 
a fragment of glass or some other sharp instrument so as to separate 1 
the fleshy part and leave the fibers behind. It is then washed, dried 
in tin 1 sun, and combed out. It is classified in four grades, according 
to its fineness, and is then employed in the manufacture of fabrics in 
the same way as Manila hemp. The finer filaments aie woven in very 
rough looms into a most delicate cloth. This commands a high price, 
and is used for making handkerchiefs, waists, and other garments. 
This cloth is very highly prized in the Philippines, as much as 20,000 
reals having been paid for a single embroidered suit. 

Ramie ( Boehmeria rtivea). 

This plant, of the family Urticacese, probably lias its origin in Java, 
Sumatra, or the southern part of China. It is a nettle, like those of 
Spain, but without needles. It is cultivated for its fiber, which is 
formed on the outer part or bark of the plant. It grows to a variable 
height, according to climate and soil, of between 1 and 2^ meters. 
Beyond doubt the famous Canton linen is manufactured from this 
excellent fiber, which rivals flax. En spite of the excellent quality of 
this libci' the cultivation of (his plant has not increased, on account of 
the difficulty of extraction, which can only be profitably done with 



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Report of the Philippine commission. 253 

special machiner}\ In the Philippines it is found only in the Batanes 
Islands and the north of Luzon. 

The plant Urtica arborescens Bl. orDalonot, whose fiber is employed 
for the same purposes, also exists. 

Agave (Agave americana L.). 

This plant, belonging to the family Amaryllidacese, comes originally 
from America. Its fleshy, sharp leaves, bordered with a row of spines, 
furnish a fiber from which delicate cloth called nipis is made. It is 
cultivated on a small scale in certain localities in the Philippines. The 
Tagalogs call it magui, or maguey. It is exported in bulk to England, 
China, Japan, and Egypt. 

Cabo-negro (Arenga saecharifera Labill.; Caryopa onusta BL). 

This plant, called cauong by the natives, belongs to the family of 
palms. Along the edge of the stem of the leaf are long, black, and 
very strong fibers, which are useful for the manufacture of ropes and 
cordage. These are very durable and resist moisture and even salt 
water. It is used also in making walls or partitions, and has some 
other uses which will be mentioned later. 

Rattan (Bejuco). 

Of the genus Calamus there are several species called by the natives 
dilan, yantoc, talola curag, and palasan. These spiny, climbing plants, 
which sometimes attain a length of 200 meters, furnish to the natives 
a useful material of most extended application. All the framework 
of the houses built of bamboo and nipa, and many of those built of 
wood, are held together only by strongly laced bands of rattan, this 
article supplying the place of nails. These rattans are also employed 
in the rigging of all the smaller boats, and in the making of rafts, etc. 
In some of the provinces hats and sacks or bags are made from rattan, 
and in other places chairs and other articles of furniture. 

Pandan (Pandanus spiralis, Bl.). 

This plant belongs to the family Pandanacew. Its leaves are used 
for the manufacture of hats and sacks, an industry developed in Luc- 
ban and the province of Tayabas. The huge, wide leaves of the palm 
called buri (Corypha umbraculifera L.) are also used for this purpose. 
In the same way the split stems of the leaves of the nito (Lygodium 
semihastatus Del.) are utilized. 



CHAPTER IV. 
PLANTS FROM WHICH Olli IS OBTAINED. 

COCOANUT (Cocas in i rife ra L. ). 

This is one of the most important plants of the archipelago, satis- 
fying as it dors with its various products so many industrial, economic, 
and medicinal wants. It will be discussed here simply as an oil- 
producing plant. 

It belongs to the family of palms and comes from India. Many 
varieties are found in the Philippines, especially in the Visayan 
Islands. The chief ones of these are called cayumanus. limbaon, dah- 
liii, and macapuno, the chief points of difference being in the fruit. 

Oidti/oation. — This plant will grow almost anywhere and does not 
demand any particluar kind of soil. Nevertheless, if a plantation is 
to be established it is best to choose land situated near the sea, having 
a reddish soil mixed with sand, as the salt water and the regular 
winds seem to benefit the trees. It is not expedient to place planta- 
tions on highly elevated ground, as the winds easily uproot many 
trees. Young trees grow from the perfectly ripe fruit. In Cuba, 
where the cultivation of the fruit is carried on with much care, beds 
for sprouting the ^vvd are made in suitable soil and the young trees 
are carefully guarded. In the Philippines the nuts are placed with- 
out any preparation close together in beveled beds, where they are 
exposed to the influence of the air. In following this procedure it is 
a year before the plant reaches a height of a meter. Another and 
shorter method is to hang the nuts on trees in such a way that 
they are partially protected from the sun. but exposed to atmos- 
pheric influences. In this way the plants will attain the height of a 
meter within five months. The small trees are now transplanted into 
previously prepared soil. The holes in which they are placed should 
be not less than I! meters in diameter in loose soil and -2 to 3 meters 
i" mountain soil. The plants should be from 8 to 12 meters apart, 
according to the character of the soil, and the transplanting should be 
done just before the beginning of the rainy season. After planting 
thej requirebut littlecare. Weedsniust be kept out, insects destroyed, 
tli.' dry leaves cut away, and in certain cases, when the dry season is 
very prolonged irrigation must be resorted to during the first few 
y«ars. h i- :i good idea to cultivate some other crop, such as corn or 
the mungo, for the firs* lew years. On good land the plantations 
,M 'V' : " '" bear fruit at the end of seven years; on poor lands no fruit 
i- borne for t-'ii or twelve years. 

The diseases of the cocoanul tree are brought about by 

atmospheric conditions or by animal or vegetable parasites. Among 

,1 "' l,,M l,l:l > be mentioned excessive humidity, especially when the 

U:,,, ' r '" '* ftboul in pools, and an unusually prolonged dry season, very 

ll,,u - and earthquakes. Earthquakes produce such an effect 

tive functions of the tree that ordinarily many of the 

dropofl within a short time. Ajnong animals may be mentioned 



REPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 255 

crows, rats, and bats, which cause but little damage. Locusts at times 
devastate the plantations, eating not only the leaves but the leaf ribs. 
Hogs sometimes destroy the young trees. The beetles RhyncopJwra 
ochreatus, Eydana, and Rhyncophora pascha Bohem., called b}^ the 
natives Bagangan, penetrate the terminal bud of the tree and destroy 
it in a few days. These insects are destroyed by pouring into the 
holes they make ashes, sand, or an infusion of tobacco. Among para- 
sitic plants may be mentioned a fungus ( Uredo cocivora). This micro- 
scopic plant collects on the terminal bud of the tree and destro} T s the 
outer covering of this organ, the fungus appropriating the nutritive 
elements to its own use. This operation destroys the tree in a short 
time, as the fungus multiplies from its spores with great rapidity. The 
best treatment consists in destroying the affected or suspected trees 
with fire. 

The analysis of the meat of the cocoanut, according to Buchwer, is 
as follows: Water, 31.8 percent; stearin and olein, 47 per cent; albu- 
men sulphate of calcium and sulphur, 4.3 per cent; potassium and 
other salts, 11 per cent; insoluble woody fiber, 8.6 per cent. 

The nuts are collected every four months. They are taken to mar- 
ket in such vehicles as are used in the country or, if possible, by water, 
when a raft is formed of the cocoanuts themselves, having simply a 
rope about them to prevent them from separating. The owner rides 
on top of this raft of cocoanuts. 

Uses. — When the fruit is to be used for the manufacture of oil a disk 
of the outer husk called by the natives bonot is first cut from either end. 
The rest of the husk is then removed by means of a conical-pointed 
iron which is fixed in a piece of wood. The inner covering, or shell,, 
is then divided into two parts. The adherent meat is then separated 
from the shells b}^ means of a semicircular knife fixed in a wooden 
support, or perhaps by a sp) erical iron grater, which is fastened to 
the end of a wooden shaft lying horizontally and which is turned by 
means of pedals. When extracted in this manner the meat of the nut 
is deposited in a large wooden tub which has a hole in the bottom for 
the escape of the oil, which flows from the mass simply by exposure 
to the sun; but this process is very long, as to extract all of the oil 
requires a month or more. It is likewise very imperfect, as the 
decomposition of extraneous material imparts to the oil a dark color 
and an almost insupportable odor. A better and more general method of 
extracting is by means of fire. The cocoanut meat is placed in suitable 
receptacles or in specially prepared ovens and boiled, or it is placed in 
large kettles having a slow fire underneath. During the boiling a 
froth containing extraneous material is thrown away. It is usual to 
express the oil from the meat, as a much larger quantity is obtained. 
If the nuts are good ones, and the operation is done with care, 5 liters 
of oil should be obtained from 30. The natives use this oil as a condi- 
ment, and while still fresh as a purgative. It is greatly used for light- 
ing purposes and in the manufacture of soaps. Both in the Philippines 
and Europe it is used in the manufacture of port* umery. 

Benne seed — (Sesama, or Ajonjoli) (Sesamum orientate L. ). 

This plant, belonging to the family Pedaliacese, has been known in 
the Orient from the most remote time, and is to-day cultivated in all 
tropical countries. The seeds of this plant contain as much as 53 per 
cent of fixed oil. This oil, somewhat similar to olive oil, and often 
mixed with it to adulterate it, has a sweet taste, although more insipid 



256 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

than olive oil, and is very slow in becoming rancid. In Egypt, Japan, 
and other oriental countries, it is used in cooking in place of lard or 
olive oil. As it is an excellent article for making soap, it is an impor- 
tant article of trade between Europe and Egypt and oriental countries. 
It is also used as a cosmetic and in the preparation of medicinal emul- 
sions. The residue left after the extraction of the oil is used as a 
fertilizer, and also as an excellent food for fattening cattle. Of that 
cultivated in the archipelago but a small quantity is exported. For 
perfect ripening this plant requires a temperature 30 degrees centi- 
grade and an even climate. It should be planted in places protected 
from strong winds, preferably on alluvial or clay soil of average fer- 
tility and capable of irrigation. The seed is sown by hand, after which 
tin 4 crop requires no care except thinning a little when the plants are 
from 1:2 to L6 centimeters in height. The crop is harvested when the 
-talks begin to fall and turn yellow. Great care must be taken in har- 
vesting or the seed will be lost. 

Lumbang [Aleuriies triloba Bl. ). 

This plant, of the family Euphorbiacse, is cultivated for the oil 
which is extracted from its seeds. This oil is of good quality, is used 
for lighting purposes and for calking ships, and is excellent for paint- 
ing. The refuse left after the extraction of the oil is generally 
employed as a fertilizer for the betel palms. Lumbang oil is exported 
to l 'hina. 

Castok On. (Ricino) (Ricinus communis L.). 

This plant, a native of India, belongs to the family Euphorbiacese, 
known also as the Iliguera infernal (infernal fig) and to the Tagalogs 
a- tangantangan. It is cultivated for its seeds, which produce about 10 
pei- cent of a purgative oil much used in medicine and which may be 
also used for lighting purposes. 

A reddish oil very useful for illumination is extracted from the 
seeds of a tree (Jatropha curcas) belonging to this same family and 
which is known to the Tagalogs as tuba, in Iloilo as casla. and in 
[locos as tavatava. 

The Peanut (Mam. ob Cacahuate) (Arachi&hypogaeali.). 

This plant, belonging to the family Leguminosse is a native of lower 
< ruinea, from whence it was carried to Brazil, and is now cultivated in 
all America, the southern part of Europe, Asia, and Oceania In the 
Philippine Archipelago it is cultivated on a small scale only as forage 
for cattle. 

The most Important use of mani is the extraction of a fixed oil from 
n- seeds. This <>il has the important property of not becoming rancid 
for a long time. If the climate is suitable and the cultivation care- 
fully carried on, the seeds will yield half of their weight in oil. but as 
ordinarilj cultivated they do not yield more than one-third. It is a 
pitj thai in the Philippines, which has a climate so well suited to this 
plant, its cultivation is not more carefully and extensively carried on. 
oil i- fluid, yellowish in color, without odor, and with a decided 
sweetish taste, which makes if inferior to olive oil. It may be 
•''^V' 1 '" the prejjaration of toilet oils, soap, and lubricating 
oils. I he residue obtained after the extraction of the oil. mixed with 
qual weight of Hour, is employed for making bread. It may be 
mixed w hi, cacao for the manufacture of chocolate, 



CHAPTER V. 

PLANTS PRODUCING DYES AND STARCHES. 

In this chapter are included two groups of industrial plants — the 
first containing the dye plants found in the Philippines, and the second, 
those from which starch can be obtained. 

DIVISION A. DYE PLANTS. 

Under this heading are included those plants which furnish to indus- 
try substances from which dyestuffs can be made. The cultivation of 
these plants has diminished greatly since the discovery of the aniline 
d} T es which are to-day so much used. 

Indigo (Axil) {Indigofera tinetaria L.) . 

This plant, belonging to the family Leguminosa?, is a native of India, 
where it is found wild in many places and in others under cultivation. 
± he juice extracted from its leaves and young stalks furnishes a blue 
(iyestuff known as indigo, which is much used in the industries. The 
principal Philippine provinces in which it is produced are Bataan, 
Batangas, Bulacan, Laguna, Pangasinan, Pampanga, Zambales, and 
North and South Ilocos. The latter province, even with a small crop, 
produces more than all the other provinces combined. 

Besides the species already mentioned others are found in the Philip- 
pines, as Indigofera tvifoliata, L. ; Indigofera trita, L. ; Indigofera 
hirsuta, L., the first two being cultivated. 

Cultivation. — The indigo plant, called by the Tagalogs tayum, has 
small, slender, round leaves, whose tips are colored. It produces little 
slender pods full of seeds, by means of which it is propagated in the 
fields. Although this plant grows in temperate climates, two or three 
crops a } T ear may be obtained in warm, moist climates as against one 
in the former. The most suitable grounds for the cultivation of this 
are those having light, deep soil, as the roots of this plant ramify but 
little, the central long root penetrating deeply into the soil. For this 
reason lands tying along rivers and small streams and at the foot of 
mountain ranges are most suitable for its cultivation, especially if 
they abound in alluvium. The land should be free from trees, so that 
the sun's rays are not cut off. 

Under these conditions the juice of the leaves and young stems is 
more abundant. The soil should be deeply worked and fertilized by 
such substances as the residue of the indigo plant and others which 
contain organic matter, alkaline salts, phosphates and lime, such as 
refuse, ashes, etc. The seed is sown broadcast or in lines, the latter 
method being preferable, as it saves seed and facilitates weeding and 
irrigation. When the young plants are one month old the ground 

257 



258 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

should be cleared of weeds, which deprive the plants of sustenance and 
of light and ventilation, all of which are so necessary to them. As 
the coloring matter is extracted principally from the leaves, these 
should he collected as soon as they are completely formed and before 
the fruit has formed. The indigo in the leaves is without color and in 
solution, and forms a part of the juice. When the juice is extracted 
from the plant it is yellowish white in color. On being exposed to the 
action of the air it changes successively to } r ellowish green, green, 
greenish blue, and finally, becoming insoluble, it falls as a blue pre- 
cipitate, in the bottom of the vessels in which it is contained, about 
thirty hours after the extraction of the juice. 

Uses. — Indigo is used for dyeing thread and cloth of cotton, silk, 
and wool and for coloring wood paper, etc. In commerce several 
varieties of indigo are known, of various values. Philippine indigo is 
of about the same grade as that of Coromandel and Madras, which is 
next to that from Bengal, the most highly prized, but on account of 
adulterations made by speculators, principally Chinese, who mix other 
materials with it, Philippine indigo is somewhat discredited and has 
suffered depreciation in price in the markets of the world. Neverthe- 
less, this article is regularly exported to China, Japan, and Singapore. 

Rattan (Sibucao) (Csesalpinia sappanlj.). 

This is a plant of the family Leguminosa?, whose woody trunk pro- 
duces a red coloring matter similar to campeachy or logwood, and which 
Is employed in dyeing cotton or wool. It is very abundant in the 
forests of the Philippines, and some excellent varieties are found, 
which produce a color more highly valued than that of the Brazil 
woods. It grows naturally from the seeds which fall from the pod on 
the ground. Considerable amount of the dye is produced in the 
Philippine Archipelago, and it is an important article of export to 
( 'hina and England. The Chinese employ it in dyeing silks, damasks, 
and other fabrics woven in China. It is sometimes used in place of 
cochineal, though the color is not as stable. 

Safflow&b or AlLAzob ((^rthamnvsHnctoriusJj.). 

This is a plan) of the family Compositse, called also bastard saffron 

and in the Philippines hiri. [t is valued and cultivated for its stamens, 

\\ 1 1 ith contain three principal coloring matters, two yellow, .soluble in 

water and of little value, and the third red, soluble in the alkalies and 

reater importance. It is used in the adulteration of saffron. 

\''' win I Melaatoma polyanthum Blum.), and B ancuro (Morindatinctoria Roxb. ). 

These are two trees of the family of Melastomacese and Rubiacese, 
►ectively. The natives extrad From the bark of the former and 
the root of the latter a bright-red coloring matter which they use to 
dye pieces of hemp doth, which are then called pinayusas. To obtain 
the coloring matter from the bancuro the bark from the upper part 
of the large roots is taken off, dried, and reduced to a fine powder. 
I" this condition it is called nino or culit. The operation of dyeing 
these pinayusas is thus described by Father Delgado, S. J.: 

lyeinc these while squares on the cloth is very complicated and 
ea in little piles upon oneanother in a curiousand admirable 



EEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 259 

manner. Each one of the little squares before being dyed is tied with a thread of 
hemp, each blanket or piece of cloth requiring innumerable little threads or puyos, 
as they are called in the native language; the little threads once tied up in this way, 
the dye is applied to the whole piece, a little lime is added, and after the cloth has 
taken the dye all the little threads are removed. As the dye has not penetrated the 
little squares which were tied up, these remain white, and form on the red back- 
ground figures which give to the cloth the name pinayusas. The natives use this for 
making tents, curtains, and for adorning their houses. 

Bacauan (Rhizophora tinctoria L. ). 

Shrub or tree of the family Rhizophoracere. These trees make up 
the mangrove swamps which are commonly found along the coast and 
near the mouths of rivers. They have extensive and impenetrable 
jungles, the refuge of mosquitoes, aquatic birds, and marine animals. 
From the bark a reddish coloring matter is extracted. The wood is 
much used as firewood. 

Balanti (Homalanthus popvMfolius R. Grab.) and Cumalon (Diospyros cunalon 

A. DC). 

These are two trees of the family of the Ebenacese, the bark of which 
when dried and reduced to a powder furnishes a black coloring mat- 
ter used by the natives. 

Salicsican ( Morindcc umbellata L. ) and others. 

The salicsican is a species of nino or wild bancuro, from whose roots 
the natives extract a red coloring matter which they employ in various 
wa\^s. 

The natives extract dyes from various other species of wood. From the 
bark of the tree called bagolibas a dye is obtained which will give any 
kind of cloth a fine, tawny color. The prepared bark of the tree called 
dayagao makes a fine mordant, which imparts a fine luster and great 
stability to cloth dyed black, yellow, or red. Belolo, dugna, and 
hagur are very much used by fishermen for dyeing and strengthening 
their nets, which take on a dark brown color and are rendered less 
susceptible to rotting. Ananaples (Alhizzia procera Benth.), of the 
family Leguminosae, is used in dyeing hides which are to be used in 
the manufacture of whips, sole leather, and saddles. 

DIVISION B. PLANTS PRODUCING STARCH. 

The so-called feculas, or starches, are carbohydrates which exist in 
plants, constituting one of the most abundant of their proximate prin- 
ciples. They are found in the seeds of cereals, in vegetables, in tubers, 
in the trunks of various palms, in the roots of some plants of the fam- 
ily Euphorbiacese, and in various organs of many other plants. Accord- 
ing to their origin they take different names— that from wheat and 
other cereals is called starch ; that from the potato and other tubers, 
fecula, which is a generic term and is usually considered synonymous 
with starch; that from the yucca or cassava, tapioca; and that from the 
palm, sago. Here^ will be discussed only those plants from which some 
one of these proximate principles is extracted. They all furnish food 
of great nutritive value and easy of digestion. 

p c— vol 3—01 27 



260 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Cassava, Yucca, or Oamoting cahoy (Jatropha manihot L.). 

This plant is an herb of the family EuphorbiaceaB, a native of tropi- 
cal countries. It is notable for its roots, which contain an abundance 
of starchy fecula known by the name of tapioca, whose good qualities 
are so well known. In the Antilles, where it is known as yucca, it is 
cultivated with great care. The yucca or camoting cahoy, as it is called 
in the Philippines, grows well in both temperate and hot regions; the 
soil should be strong but not low, sandy and loose, so that the develop- 
ment of the root is not restricted; to accomplish this the ground must 
be plowed four or five times, finally leaving the straight parallel fur- 
rows one or two meters apart in order to allow the unrestricted growth 
of the plant. The plant is multiplied by means of buds growing from 
knots on the woody trunk, pieces of which are planted horizontally in 
the furrows and covered with nine or ten centimeters of earth. The 
roots of the camoting cahoy attain considerable size, and while they 
are still fresh they contain a milky juice which is poisonous, but this 
deleterious substance disappears upon boiling or simply upon exposure 
to the air for twenty-four hours, leaving the residue of the milky juice 
quite inoffensive. 

According to Chemists Bontron and Henry, this poisonous principle 
is prussic acid in very small quantities, and in such a diffused state that 
it can not produce an instantaneous effect, but it does when concen- 
trated. In order to utilize the root of the camoting cahoy as food it is 
necessary to grate it, wash it, and subject it to a considerable pressure 
to express the juice; the material remaining behind after these opera- 
t ions is the flour or tapioca. This material after being taken from the 
press is roasted on some hot surface, being continually stirred. The 
fecula or tapioca is very nutritious, some maintaining that a half a 
kilogram a day is sufficient for one man. It is white or yellowish 
white in color, sweetish in taste, and somewhat insipid. It is much 
valued in medicine on account of its digestibility, and it is much used 
as mi infant food. 

Arrow Root. 

This is also called iiiaranta, and in the Philippines tagbac-tagbac. It 
belongs lo (he family Marantacese, of which two species are known: 
Ma/ranta vndica L., and M. a/rundmacea^ the latter a name of America 
and (he former of India. Both are important on account of their 
roots, which produce (lie starchy feculas known as arrow root and 
sago. The latter is a herbaceous plant, a, meter in height, having 
lanceolate leaves about 15 centimeters in length, similar to those of 
the banana plant, even in the method of growing. The part of the 
-talk under ground gradually diminishes in size, to (he point of inser- 
tion, into a long horizontal, fleshy-white tuber, which seems to be a 
rbizoma, and which contains a considerable quantity of fecula. 

Oultwation. It is cultivated with success in all loose, fairly damp 
It Is planted from buds which are placed separately in holes 
about 60 centimeters apart, as the plant is very leafy. The crop can 
be collected In bu or seven months without further care. 

Bi eu (Oorypha wmbraculifeTa L.). 

I In- plant Is celebrated in all the Philippine Archipelago, giving 
name to the island of Burias, where it is found in abundance. It is 
found m all the other islands, although in some not in the same 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 261 

abundance as others. It belongs to the palm family, grows to a con- 
siderable height, is very beautiful, the trunk being adorned with an 
extended bunch of leaves. These are green in color, the young ones, 
however, being very white. It grows spontaneously in all parts, the 
natives never planting or cultivating. The leaves are very large and 
are different from those of the cocoanut tree; they extend from a single 
base in the form of a fan. This plant is of the greatest value to the 
natives. It does not produce fruit till after many years, and when it 
does once produce it, it dries up and dies. The fruit grows in bunches 
from the top of the tree, and is filled with little round nuts like hazel- 
nuts. The fruit, however, is not edible. 

Use and Method of preparation. — To obtain the starch, the tree is 
cut down at the root and all of the soft interior part of the trunk is 
taken out and placed while moist in casks or troughs, while some of 
the naturally bitter substances are drained from it; it is now pounded 
with sticks or mallets, when the starch separates in the form of very 
fine grains; it is then collected and dried and made into flour, which 
serves as food for the natives, and some of which is sold in Manila and 
other parts. It furnishes an excellent, tasteful, and good food, which 
is called in commerce sago. In Burias, Masbate, Bohol, and other 
parts where the tree grows in abundance, it takes the place of rice as a 
food stuff. 

Bagsang (Metroxylon rumphii Mart. ) . 

This palm, called Bagsang, is very common in the Visayan Islands 
and very useful to the inhabitants. They neither plant it nor cultivate 
it, as it grows spontaneously from the seeds which it produces or from 
the shoots which grow at its base. It generally grows along the banks 
of rivers and estuaries, in moist regions, and in places near springs. 
This plant has many uses in all times, but especially if there is a lack 
of rice or other food stuffs. To obtain it, the tree is cut down and 
stripped of its bark, which is called baje, and which is utilized by the 
natives in many ways. The interior or heart of the tree is then cut 
into strips, which are dried over a fire and saved for further use. It 
is then pounded in wooden mortars, being reduced to a sort of flour, 
which is of great nutritive value. It is most frequently made into 
cakes or fritters, which, when eaten with cocoanut milk, are very good 
and healthful. 

Lumbia, or Lumbay (Metroylon silvestre Mart.). 

This is a palm very similar to the preceding one, but taller and 
larger and having wider and stronger leaves. It grows along the shore 
of the sea and along the banks of rivers and creeks and in other places 
where water is abundant. It grows from its small fruit, which is not 
edible. A species of flour is obtained from the heart of this palm, 
which serves as a food stuff to the poorer classes, especially during 
times of famine. 

Cauong (Caryota onusta Bl.). 

This is a palm similar to the preceding, from whose trunk a species 
of sago is obtained. The method of extraction is that generally pur- 
sued. The tree is cut down and the fibrous material removed from 



262 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

tin 1 interior. This is pounded and then soaked in a cask, when a fine 
white flour settles to the bottom. The water is poured off, the pre- 
cipitate remaining behind being a sort of sago. 

Pagahan, or Banga ( Caryota urens L. ) . 

This palm, although containing a poisonous substance, furnishes a 
starch, or kind of sago, of excellent qualities and in good quantities. 
[t is prepared according to the methods already described. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PI.AKTS PRODUCING SACCHAEINE AND AliCOHOIilC 

SUBSTANCES. 

Two groups of plants are included in this chapter, the saccharine 
plants, or those which produce sugar and alcohol, and those from which 
alcoholic drinks are made. Only the species of both groups cultivated 
in the Philippines will be mentioned. 

SACHARINE PLANTS. 

Sugae Cane (Saccharum officinarum L. ). 

This plant, known by the name of sugar cane or honey cane, belongs 
to the family of grasses. It is a native of India and China. In the 
Philippines it is one of the agricultural products of greatest impor- 
tance. The sugar-producing provinces are Pampanga and the island 
of Negros, and on a smaller scale the Laguna Bataan, Batangas, Iloilo, 
Cebu, Cavite, Pangasinan, Capiz, Antique, and Mindanao. There 
are many varieties of sugar cane, there being no less than twenty in 
the Philippines. The most important one cultivated, besides the ordi- 
nary variety, being the Batavian, which is distinguished from the com- 
mon variety b} r the violet color of its stalks and the larger number of 
joints and its greater size; the Otaheite, which is taller and larger than 
the previous one, and has a lemon-yellow stalk; finally the yellow or 
Creole variety, which has a slender stalk, and is yellowish white in 
color. 

Cultivation. — This plant for its full development requires a climate 
whose temperature is not less than 18° C, and which should be 
as high as 23° C. during the ripening period. The soil should be 
deep and of medium consistency and, preferably, clayey loam or sili- 
cious. The best fertilizers are manure, ashes, blood from the slaugh- 
terhouses, lime, and green stuff; fish, on account of the phosphorus 
which they contain; sulphates and phosphates of potassium, and, bet- 
ter than all of these, the bagasse, or the refuse left after grinding 
the cane. The ground should be prepared by plowing three or four 
times, and finally by hoeing, leaving it perfectly soft and smooth. 
Little holes of vaiying depths are then made in the soil at a distance of 
a meter or a meter and a half from each other. In these are placed 
little pieces of the stalk, some 40 centimeters long, each one of which 
should contain eyes or buds. These should be placed in water twenty- 
four hours before planting. They are then placed four or ^ve in a 
hole, somewhat inclined, and are covered with 4 or 5 centimeters of 
soil, and worked if necessary. Other care of the crop is reduced to 
irrigation, hilling, and necessary weeding. The cutting begins when 
the cane assumes a yellow color on the lower part of the stalk and 

263 



264 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

when the juice shows 8° or 9° on the Baume scale. The cane should 
be cut obliquely and when the earth is not too moist, as when there 
is an excess of moisture the blow of the machete or knife breaks the 
root and thus injures the plant. In the Philippines the cultivation 
of sugar cane is generally carried on with little care and intelligence, 
and tins is one of the reasons wiry the quantity and quality of the crop 
has diminished. To increase the production, it will be necessary to 
perfect methods of cultivation, selecting* the best varieties of cane, or 
those which are best suited for the existing conditions, and tilling and 
fertilizing the land with more care; so, too, much greater care should 
he taken in the manufacture of the sugar. 

Sorghum (Sorghum saccharatum Pers. , or Saccharum koemgnlletz). 

This plant likewise belongs to the family of grasses, and in its stalks 
are sweet juices which sometimes give as high as 17 per cent of pris- 
matic sugar. In the Philippines this plant is utilized only for forage, 
although it might well be cultivated for the production of sugar in cer- 
tain regions where sugar cane does not grow well. Sorghum demands 
the same kind of soil and the same cultivation as corn. It is planted in 
the same manner and should be weeded and hilled in the same way as 
corn. Alcohol for industrial purposes can be obtained from sorghum 
as well as from sugar cane. 

ALCOHOLIC PLANTS. 

Under this heading will be included such vegetables as contain glu- 
cose or other substances which can by means of fermentation be con- 
verted into alcohol or alcoholic drinks. In the Philippines these plants 
are nipa. cocoanut, buri, cauong, pugahan, maize, and others. 

Nipa, ob Sasa (Nipa liitoralis Bl., Nipa fructificans Thunb.). 

The nipa is a palm which grows to a height of tt meters, and from 
whose short stem rise large Leaves composed of a multitude of little 
ensiform Leaflets. The fruit consists of various clusters lying very 
closely together, although they are easily separated, which together 
form a large hunch hanging at the end of a thick peduncle which arises 
from the base of the tree. It is indigenous to the coast and grows 
only in muddy regions, or those which are liable to be overflowed, or 
the mouths of rivers which communicate with the sea. It is one of 
the mosl useful trees found in the Philippines. As a thatch it covers 
a great majority of the houses and even some of the churches in the 
islands. Many of the native houses have the walls and partitions made 
of nipa. as well as the roofs; but of still greater importance than the 
leaf is the tuba or sap from which nipa wine or arac (arrack) is made 
and which js consumed to such a great extent by the natives. 

Cultivation. Nipa groves must be prepared by planting, which 
usually takes place between May and the last of July. The ripe fruits 
which fall t<» the ground are collected and employed for this purpose. 
Twoor three of these fruits are placed in holes winch are Located about 
l.T meters from each other, as the rains are very frequent during 
o months and the ground is kept moist it is not usually necessary 
to irrigate. Tin- condition of moisture of the ground is also favored 
b) thr high tides. In order to get the best results from the grove all 



REPORT OE THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 265 

dead leaves, or those which could prejudice the development of the 
fruit, should be removed. 

Method of obtaining the tuba. — A grove becomes serviceable at the 
end of five or six years. In order to obtain the tuba an incision is 
made in the peduncle immediately below the point of insertion of 
the fruit, leaving a few of the best developed fruits for purposes 
of reproduction. A liquid which flows from the incision is collected 
in bamboo tubes or joints called bombones, which are hung conven- 
iently on the plant. In order that this sap shall flow with the greatest 
facility several little operations are gone through with. The first of 
these, called sicat, consists in striking the peduncle of the fruit several 
blows, with the object of loosening somewhat the tissues and opening 
the pores. This operation should be done once a week during the five 
months preceding the producing season. Simultaneously the process 
called talog, which consists in cleaning the peduncle of all leaves, is 
gone through with. When the collecting season arrives the operation 
called pucao is gone through with. This consists in rapidly rubbing 
the foot against the peduncle so as to call the sap toward the fruit. 
After this comes patit, which consists in cutting the peduncle near the 
base and leaving the bamboo joint attached, in which the juice is col- 
lected as it falls drop by drop. After this the incision on the peduncle 
is renewed twice each day, morning and evening, the tuba being collected 
daily. The collecting season lasts about ten months, the production 
increasing gradually for the first five months and decreasing slowly 
from that time. The average production of a single plant is about 46 
liters during the season. When the business is carried on on a large 
scale one-half the product goes to the owner and the other half to the 
workmen. The tuba is afterwards distilled and then concentrated in 
stills, and although the loss of liquid is great, there still remains a con- 
siderable amount. This tuba, when much fermented, may be used as 
vinegar. One hundred jars of this vinegar, each containing 48 liters, 
sells for $10 or $12. 

The Cocoanut (Cocos nucifera, L.). 

Method of gathering the tuba. — To obtain the tuba from the cocoanut 
tree the same is cut before the flower is formed and before it has 
appeared externally. A bamboo joint or bombone is then attached for 
the collection of the liquid. The flower cluster or summit is bound 
together with pieces of rattan so that the bamboo joint can be easily 
adjusted. As one tree may have several flower clusters, as many bam- 
boo joints as are necessary are placed in position. A little of the 
powdered bark of the tongog (Rizophora longissima, Bl.) is placed in 
each bamboo joint; this serves to give strength and a reddish color to 
the wine. The wine is collected daily by men who carry large bamboo 
joints hanging over the back and held in place by a curved piece of 
wood. Attached to this large bombone, which is carried on the shoulder 
of the workman, is a rounded receptacle made of a shell of a cocoa- 
nut, which contains the powder alread}^ spoken of. Every time one of 
the small bamboo joints is emptied it is necessary to clean it perfectly 
on the inside and to renew the powder. This cleaning is done by a 
little brush or broom, which is made of a piece of the stem of the leaf 
of the cocoanut tree, which is carefully pounded on the end so as to 
convert it into a shorter brush. A small quantity of powder is then 
placed in the bombone and a fresh incision made in the flower stem. 



266 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

This cutting of the flower stem is done with a very sharp little curved 
kni fe. Each stem will produce wine for a period of two months, after 
which it dries out. In order to facilitate climbing the trees notches are 
made on either side, thus forming* a sort of ladder. When a collection 
of tuba is carried on on a large scale, in order to avoid the loss of time 
involved in climbing each tree, large bamboos are tied from one tree 
to another horizontally, the two passing from tree to tree; one of these 
serves as a foot bridge and the other as a hand rail. Men frequently 
fall from them, often with fatal results. This tuba begins to ferment 
within an hour, more or less, after its collection, and at the end of a 
day it has changed to a sort of vinegar, fermentation often being facili- 
tated by the addition of suitable plants. The liquid is then distilled, 
the distillate being known as cocoanut wine. 

Bur i ( Coryphd umbraculifera L. ) . 

This plant also produces a wine called tuba. It is obtained from an 
incision in the fruit, from which the juice issues. From this juice 
wine is made, and also a yellow honey-like substance called pacascas. 

Cauon<} {Caryota onusta, B1.)and Pugahan (Caryota urens L. ). 

A sweet liquid or tuba is obtained in the same manner in the fruit 
of these plants. 

There are also other plants of less importance from which the 
natives obtain their favorite drink, tuba. 

. Maize ok Indian Corn, etc. (Zea maysh.). 

An alcoholic drink, called in theVisayan Islands pangasi, is obtained 
by the fermentation of the starch of corn. Several families generally 
iim it e to make this drink and they generally end up by becoming very 
joyful and noisy. 



CHAPTER VII. 
AROMATIC PLANTS. 

Tobacco (Mcotiana tabacum L. ). 

Tobacco is a plant belonging to the family Solanaceae, having straight 
cylindrical stems, wide soft leaves of a dark-green color, whitish-green 
funnel-shaped flowers, and numerous seeds contained in the two sides 
of a pod or capsule. It is an annual plant in Europe and evergreen 
in South American and other parts. 

This plant is a native of America. It was introduced into the Philip- 
pines by missionaries in the last quarter of the sixteenth century by 
means of seeds coming from Mexico. Its cultivation spread rapidly 
on account of the favorable conditions of climate and soil, and the 
favor with which the natives looked upon it. From the Philippines it 
was introduced into the south of China. 

Species and varieties.— The genus includes a large number of species 
and varieties widely distributed over all parts of the world. In its 
properties and uses it differs but little. The principal species and 
varieties are: 

First, common tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.), called also tabaco 
macho, or male tobacco, which is the best of all. It is somewhat 
gelatinous or viscid. Its stalks reach a height of 1 meter, its leaves 
are oval or heart shaped, and its flowers purple. 

Second, tobacco hembra (female), or Mexican tobacco {Nicotiana 
rustica L.), which has rounded leaves, and which is cultivated with 
good results in the south of France. 

Third, verina, or Brazilian tobacco {Nicotiana paniculata L.). This 
is a small species, very mild, demanding a very warm climate. It is 
much used in Turkey. 

The principal varieties of the first species are the Virginia tobacco, 
which has sharp leaves and does not require an especially fertile soil, 
and which loses but little in drying; Carolina tobacco, with shorter and 
narrower leaves than the Virginia tobacco and likewise less delicate in 
its growth. Tobacco growers, paying little attention to the botanical 
and scientific classification and more to the form and utility of the 
plant, divide it into two classes, wide leafed and narrow leafed. The 
qualities determining the price of tobacco in the market are combus- 
tibility, strength, aroma, fineness, elasticity, color, and uniformity. 
Philippine tobacco, which up to a short time ago was considered 
second best in the world, on account of its agreeable aroma, fine 
veins, and notable elasticity, has recently lost much of its reputation. 
Tobacco coming from the province of Isabela de Cagayan is considered 
the best in the Philippines. That from the Visayan Islands is coarser, 
more unequal in color, and of greater strength. The tobacco from 
Nueva Ecija is fine, but somewhat bitter in taste and yellow in color. 
That from Union, llocos, and the Igorrotes is of heavy body, broken, 
and frequently has but little combustibility. 

267 



268 REPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Philippine tobacco may be divided into two groups: First, the 
varieties with elliptical or ovate, wide, or heart-shaped leaves, which is 
called in the provinces "tobacco from the old seed;" and, second, 
tobacco with lanceolate, narrower leaves than the preceding, which is 
generally known under the name of " tobacco from new seed." The 
former comes from Mexico, and the latter is supposed to have been 
introduced recently from the United States. 

Cultivation. — Although tobacco grows in almost all climates, the 
product is more abundant and much better when grown in hot climates, 
as the heat has a great influence in determining that important quality, 
the aroma, which it is impossible to impart artificially. The lands 
most suitable for its cultivation are those of medium consistency and 
depth, which are cooled during the summer time, or such as have a 
sandy or silicious subsoil covered with loam, which are situated along 
the banks of rivers which are periodically overflowed, thus adding new 
mineral and organic constituents to the soil. These lands are called 
vegas (meadows), and in this country the name of vegueros is given to 
the workmen on such plantation. As the tobacco plant is very deli- 
cate, it is necessary to fertilize the soil thoroughly. Among fertilizers 
may be mentioned those which contain potassium, lime, chloride, and 
phosphate, the best being manure in an advanced stage of decomposi- 
tion. The preparation of the soil, which should be very deep and 
carefully done, consists of three plowings at intervals of several days. 
and the completion of the process b}^ grading and leveling and the 
removal of all injurious weeds. 

The tobacco seed is sown in hotbeds, which are made on level, clean 
ground, having a carefully fertilized soil. The seed is selected from 
accredited sources and sown broadcast, being mixed with tine sand. 
These beds are about a yard wide, space enough being left between 
them to allow of the passage of weeders and other workmen. The 
seeds are covered lightly with earth, which is packed down a little and 
then irrigated, this operation being frequently repeated until the plants 
appear. These beds should be fenced in and covered over with 
branches, so as to protect the plants from the direct rays of the sun, 
but not interfere with ventilation. When the plants have four leaves 
this cover is removed, so that they may develop with greater vigor, 
and transplanting immediately begins. The plants are separated a dis- 
tanced about 60 centimeters from each other. When the flowers begin 
to appear and 10 or L2 leaves have developed, the buds are cut from the 
extremities of the stalks, so that the sap may flow to the leaves and 
nourish them with greater vigor, 

The gathering of the leaf is begun when the plant is in just the 
right condition, and the recognition of this is of the greatest impor- 
tance for the quality of the tobacco. At this time the leaves begin to 
tu in yellowish, wrinkle somewhat, droop, and show more or less of a 
sticky juice, according to the abundance or scarcity of rain during this 
period of ripening. This condition having been reached, the process 
of gathering begins. This may be done either by cutting off thestalk 
at the base, which is not a good way, or by collecting the leaves, one 
at a time, in the order in which they grow; or, beginning below, gath- 
ering a handful of two or three at a time. They are then classified 
according to size and quality, being left on the ground until they 
have dried. The tobacco is then tied In bundles, which are suspended 
bj cords in the tobacco storehouse. They are thus protected from the 






REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 269 

sun, but are exposed to excellent ventilation on all sides by windows 
and doors, which are opened or closed, according to circumstances. 

Diseases. — The tobacco plant is subject to injury from various kinds 
of insects which attack it. Among these the most dreaded is that 
called cogollero. This is a white butterfly, which is so called because 
it grows and develops in vegetables, such as cabbage and lettuce. The 
gordo is a large black worm which eats the stems of the leaves, cutting 
them and causing them to fall. The cachasado is the larva of Hadena 
androgen Lat., which lives and hides during the day in the roots of the 
plant. The primavera is very voracious, and the babosa and other 
small animals not so much dreaded. 

Chemical composition. — The chemical composition of tobacco is very 
complex and variable, according to the kind and origin of the sample 
under examination. Vauquelin and other chemists who have analyzed 
it have found inorganic substances, such as silica, potassium, magnesia, 
ammonia, nitric acid, hydrochloric, phosphoric, and sulphuric acids; 
neutral organic substances, such as cellulose, oil, yellow and green 
resins, and a volatile alkaloid called nicotine. This is an oily, color- 
less substance of pungent taste and odor, soluble in water, alcohol, and 
ether. This alkaloid is found from 1£ to 9 per cent, according to the 
kind of the tobacco, and it is worthy of note that the best tobaccos, and 
those having the greatest reputation, are those which contain the small- 
est quantity of nicotine. Dr. Lebon, of Paris, has recently announced 
the presence of a new alkaloid in tobacco — colidine — which is as pois- 
onous as nicotine. Nicotine is very energetic, and in a short time 
poisons small animals, but is much less active in the plant itself, as it 
is mixed with other less active and inert substances. 

Coffee ( Coffea arabica L. ) . 

Coffee is a plant of great importance in the Philippines. It belongs 
to the family Rubiacese, is a bush 2 or 3 meters high, having perma- 
nent leaves and white, fragrant flowers like jessamine in appearance, 
which have five stamens grouped together near the base of the leaves. 
The fruit is an oval fleshy berry, somewhat resembling a cherry, hav- 
ing a clear, green color, which changes to intense red when the fruit 
ripens. 

History. — This valuable fruit is a native of ancient Ethiopia, obtain- 
ing its name from the region called Kaffa, where it grows in great 
abundance. It was brought to the Philippine Archipelago by the 
Spanish missionaries toward the end of the last century, where it was 
first cultivated in the province of Laguna. It was afterwards natu- 
rally propagated easily and rapidly by a little mammal (Paradoxurus 
musanga L.), which fed upon the berries. Afterwards its cultivation 
fell to the lowest ebb in spite of premiums offered to cultivators. At 
the present time, due to the increased price of coffee and better facili- 
ties for exporting, its production has begun to increase. 

Species and varieties cultivated. — Although there are many different 
species of the genus Coffea, but four constitute the coffee of commerce. 
They are: Coffea arabica, or common coffee; Coffea racemosa, or Peru- 
vian coffee, very similar to the preceding; Coffea laurina, or African 
coffee, and Coffea liherica, or Liberian coffee, a more robust plant, 
which has larger leaves than the common coffee plant. Almost all of 
the varieties cultivated come from the first species, which is the one 



270 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

requiring most heat. In the Philippines the provinces producing 
most coffee are Batangas, Laguna, Tayabas, and Cavite in Luzon and 
the districts of Cotabato and Misamis in Mindanao. 

( 'iiltivation. — Coffee requires a climate whose average temperature 
ranges between 16° and 24° C, and, therefore, next to sugar cane, is 
the plant requiring the greatest amount of heat. In localities having 
both heat and moisture its growth is stronger and more luxuriant, as 
is manifested in various wa} T s. In very hot climates the coffee plant 
grows well, but should have the shade of some other suitable tree, 
whereas in cooler climates it thrives best without this protection. 
The soil most suitable for its cultivation is that which is light and 
moist, but not marshy. Reddish soils somewhat sandy, or black soils 
without too much clay, are suitable for its cultivation. 

If the land is virgin soil it should be thoroughly cleared, plowed 
deeply two or three times, and then harrowed, and if old land, it should 
be well fertilized. 

Planting can be carried on in various ways; the best are by means of 
hot beds and by transplanting. These hot beds or nurseries are made in 
well-shaded soil, which should be clean, well worked, and thoroughly 
fertilized. The seed should be ripe and fresh, and not taken from the 
fleshy covering. Transplanting is done when the plants have three or 
four roots, care being taken not to injure the delicate stem, although 
a part of the central root is cut off at the moment of transplanting. 
Plants which have reached a height of 40 or 50 centimeters may be 
used by cutting off the upper part of the stem and likewise the vertical 
root, stamping down the earth about them, and immediately watering. 
The ground where this transplanting is made should be previously 
prepared, holes being made in parallel lines running north and south, 
and having a distance of 2£ meters from each other. The land should 
afterwards be kept clean and other trees should be planted for their 
shade. The tree usually employed in the Philippines for this purpose 
is called madre cacao (Galedupa pungam Bl.), but there are many who 
advocate the use of the balibago (Hibiscus tiliaceus L.) as giving bet- 
ter protection to the plantations and being more productive. Experi- 
ence demonstrates that the pruning of coffee trees prejudices the 
production, as the plant growing naturally with favorable rains 
produces at the end of six or seven years an average of 5 kilograms 
of berries for each one, while those which have been pruned do not 
produce one-fourth as much. 

The gathering is accomplished either by shaking, if the plants are 
high, or by hand picking it' they are low. After gathering the peri- 
carpium is removed, an operation easily accomplished by hand, and the 
berries are placed in the sun, care being" taken to separate those col- 
lected on various days. When the berries are thoroughly dried, the 
husk is removed by means of a mill or other apparatus. The other 
operations necessary to prepare coffee for tin 4 market are winnowing, 
to Separate the inner husk and all diil from the berry, and sorting into 
first and second grade-. 

The coffee plant begins to produce in from three to five years, 
dine ( ( , climate, soil, and cultivation, is in full bearing in 'six or 
seven years, and continues to be productive for thirty years if ro acci- 
dent happens. Philippine coffee compares well with that of Java or 
Martinique, but there are certain Localities which produce coffee which, 
according to experts, can be compared only to that of Mocha. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 271 

From former times the production of coffee in the Philippines has 
fallen off greatly on account of the destruction of the plants by an 
insect of the genus Xylotrechus and by a fungus of the genus 
Peronospora. 

Chocolate ( Theobroma cacao L.) . 

Cacao or chocolate belongs to the family Sterculiacese, and is a 
native of Mexico and South America. It is a tree which is distinguished 
for its beautiful appearance, but more for its fruit, which is very highly 
prized, as is shown in its botanical name Theobroma (food for the gods). 
The seed of this fruit properly roasted gives out a delightful aroma, 
and well ground and mixed with sugar and a little cinnamon it forms 
chocolate, a nutritive, healthful, and agreeable food. It was intro- 
duced in the Philippine Archipelago from America some time between 
the }^ears 1660 and 1670. Although it has been cultivated for a long 
time in small quantities in various provinces of Luzon and Visayas, it 
flourishes best in southern Mindanao, and in the district of Davao it is 
produced in large quantities and of excellent quality. 

The tree reaches a height of from 8 to 11 meters and has straight 
branches. The petiolate leaves, oblong or ovate-oblong, are acuminate, 
strong, and smooth, and of same color on both sides. The small flowers 
are reddish in color and very numerous. The fruit is reddish or yel- 
lowish, ovate or oblong, having ten ridges, and simulates to a certain 
degree the shape of a small cucumber. The seeds are somewhat larger 
than an almond. 

Cultivation. — This plant demands a warm climate having an average 
temperature of from 23° to 29° C. and a considerable amount of mois- 
ture in the atmosphere. The soil should be deep and light. Black and 
reddish soils, somewhat sandy, with an abundant top soil of muck, are 
excellent. 

Planting can be done from the seed, and to save time this is usually 
done by planting the seed a distance of from 2i to 3 meters from each 
other in parallel lines. In the Philippines the seed is often planted in 
bamboo joints or in the forest, from whence they are transplanted to 
ground shaded by banana plants. As the chocolate plant requires 
shade, the tree called madre cacao is usually planted. This plant 
requires much more care than the coffee plant. In its cultivation it is 
necessary to remove all premature flowers, trim off dry branches, and 
keep the ground well cleaned. 

The fruit is gathered when it becomes ripe. The life of the choco- 
late tree is supposed to be about thirty years, during which time it 
produces fruit. It may live to be 50 years old or more, but is almost 
unproductive. 

Nutmeg ( Myristica fragrans Houtt. ) . 

The nutmeg grows naturally in Cebu and in Lagun^t, province, and 
will grow in all parts of the islands cultivated. It is a tree belonging 
to the family Myristicacese. In the Dutch possessions the tree reaches 
a height of from 10 to 13 meters. The trunk is covered with rather 
thin bark, blackish and slightly mottled, from which, when incised, 
flows a reddish juice which coagulates on contact with the air. The 
fruit is about the size of a small peach, having a thick husk and a hard 
pit about the size of an almond, inside of which the nutmeg is formed. 
This is surrounded by an aromatic rind, or skin, called mace. The 

p c— vol 3—01 28 



272 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

beautiful flower of this tree is aromatic, and from it a kind of preserve, 
noted for its fragrant odor, is made. 

The tree begins to produce at the age of 5 or 6 years, but the crop 
is very light at first. 

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum burmanni Blume; Laurus cinnamomum Blanco). 

The cinnamon tree is found in these islands, especially in Mindanao. 
In Zamboanga, Caraga, and in the mountains of the district of Misamis 
varieties of cinnamon of stronger taste and fragrance than those of 
Ceylon are found. The reason it is not more exploited is because it 
seems to contain some kind of bitter principle, which is noticed when 
it is chewed. This tree should be more highly prized in these islands, 
as it grows wherever it is planted. The cinnamon comes from the bark 
of the branches which have been stripped of their epidermis, and is an 
aromatic substance, having many uses. 

Pepper {Piper nigrum, L. ) . 

This plant belongs to the family Piperacese. Its cultivation dimin- 
ishes daily in the Philippine Islands. It is a climbing plant, which is 
fastened to adjacent trees when cultivated. Its fruit is a beriy which, 
when dried, is black or white pepper. In the northern part of the 
islands the long pepper of British India can be cultivated. 

Betel or Itmo {Piper betel, L. ); Buyo de Anis {Piper anisorum, Bl. ). 

The betel or itmo is a climbing plant, belonging to the same family 
as the preceding. It is cultivated very extensively throughout India, 
the Sunda Archipelago, all the regions adjacent to Asia, and the Phil- 
ippines. In all of these countries the leaves are used in making the prep- 
aration which is known in the Philippines as "buyo." This preparation 
is composed of one of the leaves of this plant, a piece of lime the size 
of a pea, and a piece of bonga or betelnut. The object of this mixture 
is to mollify and render supportable the taste of the pepper leaf, which 
otherwise would be acrid and disagreeable. 

The buyo de anis has a leaf which has an agreeable odor resembling 
anise. This leaf is used by some natives to mix with the pepper leaf 
in the preparation of buyo. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
MEDICINAL PLANTS. 

PLANTS USED FOR DISEASES OF THE HEAD. 

The castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis L.), of the family Euphor- 
biaeeae, which is called " tangan-tangan," is very abundant in these 
islands. It is used principally to alleviate headaches, being applied on 
leaves to the forehead, causing sweating and, consequently, relief. 
Mixed with the oil of sesame it is applied to the stomach with good 
effect; so, too, it is applied to the feet of persons suffering with 
dropsy. 

Balocanad (Aleurites trisperma Bl.) belongs to the family Euphor- 
biaceae. It has a fruit a little larger than the pomegranate. This 
fruit contains six or seven poisonous seeds. The oil of these seeds 
when rubbed into the scalp kills all vermin. 

The leaves of the capanatolet or gaudarura, when properly applied, 
improves and cures those who suffer with pains in the back. 

The so-called dacdac has medicinal properties. Its stalk or stem is 
about the size of the index finger, somewhat flattened, and blackish in 
color. An infusion is made from this stalk chopped up finely. When 
the head is bathed with this infusion, headaches disappear, as does the 
lethargy from which the patient suffers. This is true when it is used 
in the treatment of any other cephalic disease. 

PLANTS USED FOR THE DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. 

The salibutbut or pandacaqui {Tabernw moniana) belongs to the fam- 
ily Apocynaceee. An infusion of the root of this tree when given as 
a drink improves the stomach and bowels in cases of distention, cold, 
and indigestion. It is likewise an excellent blood medicine, and is 
used with great benefit by women after parturition. 

The leaves of the taguypasin or alom are of value in any chronic 
stomach disease due to inflammation, overloading, or cold. They 
should be applied hot or united with oil used as an unguent. They are 
of great value in reducing inflammation or swelling of the limbs if 
used in the same way. They cause sweating, after which the limbs 
should be enveloped in a blanket, dried, and the operation repeated if 
complete relief is desired. 

The leaves of the maisipaisi ( Clausena sp. Bun.), of the family Ruta- 
ceae, have an odor and flavor very similar to that of anise. From these 
leaves an oil of anise is made, which is very useful for diseasesof the 
stomach. Made as an infusion with cocoanut wine, it furnishes a 
drink much used in the country. 

The tree known by the name of " bacao" furnishes a bark which, 
when pulverized and mixed with water, furnishes a remedy which kills 
all kinds of intestinal parasites. This same property is possessed by 

273 



274 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

the fruit of a trailing plant called " tangulon," "pinoncillo," or " niog- 
Diogan" (Qulsqualis indica L.) of the family Combretaceae. 

The tree called " bahay " (Adenanthera pavonina L.) produces a fruit 
.something like ordinary beans in appearance, but of a bright red 
color. These placed in cavities of teeth greatly relieve the pain, the 
same object being accomplished by the root. 

The grated bark of the maragaat (Ficus radiata Dec), of the family 
Urticacese, when applied to the gums reduces swelling and strengthens 
the teeth. 

The paetan (Lunasiaparvifolia Muell.), of the f amity Rutacese, is an 
antidote for fish poison. Taken as a powder, it cures any stomach dis- 
order and is an excellent remedy for ulcerating sores, which it cleans 
and closes. 

The sambong (Bfovmea balsamifera DC), of the family Composita, 
is an excellent sage, quite aromatic, and having medicinal properties. 
As an infusion it is much used in diseases of the stomach. 

The tangulon (Quisqualis indicus L.), of the family Combretaceae, is 
another species of trailing plant, Avhich grows bountifully along the 
seashore, produces a seed called " pinoncillo," which is an excellent 
vermifuge. It may be eaten raw without danger of injuiy. 

The cabcaban (Polypodium quercinum, L.) and the balsamina or 
apalia (Momordica balsamina L.) produce purgative medicines. 

PLANTS USED FOR THE CIRCULATORY APPARATUS. 

The sibucao or Brazil wood {Cmalpinia sappan L.), of the family 
Leguminosse, is medicinal. An infusion of it causes the absorption of 
coagulated blood, and it is given in cases where blows on the body 
have caused the extravasation of blood into the tissues. 

The cumalibquib or himangeoran or otob-otob are medicinal. The 
grated root made into an infusion cleans and cures ulcers or 
wounds. An ointment is made from this plant and from the jalanotan 
and hagonoy. This is made by boiling the plant in oil, straining, and 
adding a little wax. The ointment may then be used for the cure of 
wounds. So, too, the leaves of a climbing plant grown in the Visayan 
Nlands, and which is called " balangon," is useful for this purpose. The 
pounded Leaves are applied directly to the wound. 

PLANTS USED FOR AFFECTIONS OF THE SENSES. 

The (uvueav is used as a remedy for deafness. In the operation a 
branch 8 or LO inches in length is placed over a slow lire until it 
becomes quite hot. It is then placed close to the affected ear and air 
is blown through the hole which passes through it. care being taken to 
keep the branch well within the ear. It is claimed that the hot tube 
has some special virtue, due perhaps to the medicated moisture thereof; 
when penetrating the ear restores il to a healthy condition. 

The tree called " haulig" is very useful for treating and preserving 
i lie r\ 68, B solution in water of the bark and leaves being used as a wash. 

PLANTS USED FOR THE skin. 

The resin of culasi {Lumnitsera cocemea Wight and Am.), of the 
family Combretaceee. cures scab and iteh. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 275 

A resin which serves well as a caustic is obtained from the canumay 
and the lagnoto (Diospyros multiilora Bl. ) 

The tree called panjantolon (Scaevola Jcoenigii Vahl.), of the family 
Goodenoviacese, an extraordinary large tree, is useful in medicine. 
An infusion is made from the leaves and bark which is used as a lotion 
for those suffering with specific trouble. This cures the disease and 
relieves the pain in the bones which accompanies this terrible disease. 

The pila and the root of the trailing plant called mangadlao are both 
useful in treating all kinds of wounds. 

All kinds of spots on the skin are cured by a lotion made from the 
roots of the tree called salac. 

A lotion made from the wood of the mampol, of the genus Loran- 
thus of the family Lorantaceae, will cause the pustules of smallpox to 
appear when they are slow in presenting themselves. 

The leaves of the little tree called alocloc when crushed and applied 
to boils or other cutaneous tumors quickly brings them to a head and 
causes the removal of their contents. 

Sarsaparilla of the genus Simlax, called by the natives banag, is 
very common along the banks of the rivers and the coast. The root 
is used in medicine and is well known as a remedy for those who suffer 
from specific ulcers. It is given as an infusion. 

The trailing plant called bago-bago, of the genus Garcinia, family 
Guttiferae, is also used. It is powdered, and placed over the fire, and 
applied hot to patients suffering from inflammation, as it quiets the 
nerves and relieves the pain in the joints. 

The plant called busalas is likewise medicinal. Its leaves, when 
reduced to ashes and mixed with a little oil, will bring to a head any 
kind of an abscess, or, if these are already in the stage of suppuration, 
it will cause them to open and will cure them without trouble. 

PLANTS USED IN PARTURITION. 

An infusion of the leaves of the taraje {Casuarina equisetifolia 
Forst.), of the family Casurinacese, will cure chlorosis. 

The leaves of the alagtayo or ticala, when applied to abdomen of a 
pregnant woman, will very quickly bring on parturition. 

PLANTS USED AS ANTIDOTES. 

According to the opinion of experts the manungal (Samadera indica 
Gaert.), of the family Simarubaceae, is one of the best antidotes found 
in these islands. A solution made by boiling is given to anyone who 
has eaten poisoned substances, such as herbs or fish. The oil of 
manungal is admirable for curing all kinds of disorders of the stomach, 
as is likewise the infusion made from marbar or cayutana. 

An infusion of the bark of the palagnigon is both an antidote and a 
febrifuge. 

An infusion of the bark of the calasusi (Plwneria acidifolia Poir.), 
of the family Apocynacese, is an excellent mild purgative, or may be 
used as an emetic. 

The bark of the root of the tree called bagosabac is curative for the 
bite of any kind of poisonous animal or snake. 



276 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

PLANTS USED AS FEBRIFUGES. 

The tree called tambalaguisa or mantala {Sophora tomentosa L.), 
of the family Legmninosae, has at a certain season a number of little 
yellow flowers, and following them, long pods filled with seeds, some- 
what like chickpeas. This fruit is a febrifuge having a very bitter 
taste. One or two of the seeds are given to those who suffer from 
certain malarial fever. The medicine is still more valuable for those 
having quartan. It is likewise an excellent stomachic. From these 
seeds an oil is also made which gives great relief to pains in the bones. 
It is also used for intestinal troubles and is a remedy for chlorosis. 
Another trailing plant having admirable qualities is called \>y the 
Tagalogs macabuhay and by the Visayans pangianan {Menispermum 
rwiosum L.). It belongs to the family Menispermacese. It is very 
bitter and very useful for the stomach and the entire body. 

The bark of the tree called dit& (Alstonia scholaris D. C), of the 
family Apocynaceae, when treated with acidulated water, produces an 
alkaloid, ditain, which is employed in place of quinine for all kinds of 
fevers. 

PLANTS USED AS DIURETICS. 

An infusion of the leaves of the tree called polotan or ulingon serves 
as an excellent diuretic. The juice of the bark or an infusion of it is 
likewise useful. 

The palo-santo, called by the natives guicos-guicos, or hannadao, of 
the genus Abrus, family Leguminosae, possesses admirable properties. 
It is an excellent remedy for spasms and chills, from which so many 
suffer in these countries. An infusion of this plant expels injurious 
humors from the body, does away with obstructions, regulates the 
stomach, and is of equal value with sarsaparilla for specific trouble. 
It is likewise a sudorific. 

Naguini and languingi are trailing plants which cure muscular and 
nervous spasms, the leaves being applied as a plaster after being 
heated before the fire. The application is made under the arms. 

PLANTS USED FOR VARIOUS MEDICINAL PURPOSKS. 

The pilipog is a most bitter medicine. It is useful as a stomachic, 
and simply chewed and swallowed serves to cure any kind of pain. 
It is likewise an antidote, and in the form of an infusion is a febrifuge 
useful in tertian and quartan fevers. 

Among all the trailing plants found in these islands that which is oi 
greatest importance and most esteemed is called by the natives igasud, 
(Strychnos ignatti Berg.) of the family Loganiaceae. Tin 1 Spaniards tak- 
ing up the name which was given to ii by the missionaries in the Yisayan 
Islands, call it the pepitfl 01 San [gnaciO. It abounds in all the moun- 
tain regions of Visayas, but is not found in Luzon. When full grown it 
isof considerable size, the fruit at times being as Large as a pomegranate, 
though a little longer. It has a hard shell, within which is a yellowish 
or slightly reddish meat, and in this is found the seed so highly esteemed 
in all parts of the world. These seeds are grown principally near 
Catbalogan. They are used for persons who have eaten something 
poisonous, in which ease a little piece is eaten and immediately fol- 
lowed by a drink of cold water, the poison thus being expelled." So, 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 277 

too, taking it in this manner it cures disturbances of the stomach or 
intestines. It is likewise useful for paralytics and for women during 
parturition. Grated or in the form of powder it is much used as 
st}'ptic. Grated and given with water at the beginning of the chilly 
stage will often prevent an attack of malarial fever. It is also useful 
for the bite of the caterpillar called basut, when applied as a powder 
over the affected place. It is used also as an emetic. Held in the 
mouth and sucked it is useful for rheumatism. So, too, it relieves 
indigestion. The oil remaining after pieces of this seed have been 
fried is useful for contractions of the nerves and pains in the body. 

There are many other medicinal plants in the Philippines, as may 
be seen by consulting the General History by P. Juan J. Delgado, S. J. , 
published in Manila in 1892, and others. 



CHAPTER IX. 

FRUIT TREES. 

Philippine fruit trees in general do not produce such exquisite and 
highly -prized fruits as do those of Europe. As both wild fruit trees 
and cultivated ones are very abundant, only the best-known ones will 
be spoken of; some mention will be made of their probable origin, 
arranging them according to the families to which they belong. 

ANACARDIACE^E. 

Among the Philippine species of this family is the mango (Man- 
(j If era indica Linn.), which is believed to come from Macao, and which 
grows well in the provinces of Manila and Cavite, and also in the Vis- 
ayas. The fruit season begins in April. The fruit has a delicate 
flavor and an aromatic odor, the largest of them being from 6 to 7 
inches in length; in shape they are flattened, not round; the skin is 
yellow and rather fine; the pit, which lies in the center of the fruit, is 
almost as long as the fruit itself, but very narrow. The plant springs 
from this seed. The leaves are long and wide and dark green in color; 
an infusion of these is somewhat similar to tea. Besides this species 
the following are found: Manga de anis (Mangifera fragans Maingay) 
and mani (M. cosia Jack), which is found in Mindanao, of Asiatic 
origin; casuy (Anacardmm occidentals L.), of American origin; siruelas 
(Spondias purpurea L.), from southern Asia; albudhod (Spondias 
mangifera Wild), found in Panay, also of Asiatic origin. 

TJie mmnjpon on pqjomanga (Mangifera altissima Blanco). — This 
fruit is very similar to the mango, and when ripe is quite delicious. 
It is frequently preserved in brine in the form of pickles, and is very 
healthful; it is likewise made into sweetmeats and preserves. There 
are other small varieties of this kind about the size of an olive, which 
arc used in making pickles and preserves. 

A NONAGED. 

Among this family is found the anona (Anona reticulata L.). It is 
an exotic from Mexico, its flesh being white and containing small, 
black pits. It is sweet and fragrant. 

\n:s ( \\o\ \ SQUAMOSA L.). 

Tlx- fruit is juicy and aromatic, very sweet, and so soft that it seems 
t<> inch in the mouth: it is somewhat peppery. Another species found 
is Guanabano (Anona muricata). All three species come from America. 

BBENAC] 

Bui one species of this family Is indigenous to the Philippine Archi- 
pelago, the mabalo (Diospyros discolor Wild), whose reddish fruit, 
278 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 279 

about the size of a quince, contains a large seed; the flesh is white and 
sweet, but somewhat indigestible and has a rather strong odor. The 
sapote {Diospyros ebenaster Retz.) and the pagapat {Diospyros Jcakilj.) 
are natives of China. 

GERANIACE^. 

Of the American family there are two species, the balimbing {Aver- 
rhora carambola L.), which has the flavor of a quince, and the camias 
{Averrhora bilimbi L.), whose fruit when green has an agreeable, sour 
taste, but when ripe is sweet and fragrant. 

GUTTIFER^. 

Of this family the mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) is found. 
It is an exotic, and grows only in Jolo and some points in the district 
of Zamboanga and Catabato. It is called there the u king's fruit," 
because it is so highly prized hy the Moro sultans. It is dark red or 
purple in color and about the size of an orange. The edible and juicy 
parts of the fruit form small white divisions, very soft, which are 
found in the interior; they are covered with a double skin, reddish in 
color, and which must be removed before the fruit is eaten. The 
fruit is sweet and very delicate in flavor. Its origin is the Indian 
Archipelago. 

MELIACE.E. 

In this family is found the lanzon or boboa (Zansium domesticum 
Jack). The tree is beautiful in appearance and gives a cool shade; 
the leaves are a beautiful clear green ; the skin of the fruit is a clear 
yellow, thin and fine; within it are contained five divisions, as in the 
lemon, but the flesh is crystalline white, almost transparent, sweetish 
sour, quite delicate, and very refreshing. Each fruit contains a pit, 
which is the seed from which the tree grows; it is more bitter than 
gall, but is not injurious, on the contrary it is something of a carmin- 
ative. One ma} T eat a hundred of these fruits without difficult}" and 
without danger, for they are healthful and excellent for those who 
suffer from heat. Their origin is the Malay Archipelago. 

Santol {Sandoricum indicum Cav.) is a large tree having leaves 6 or 
7 inches long. The fruit is bitter sweet in taste; it is used principally 
for preserves and pickles. Its origin is southern Asia. 

MYRTACE^E. 

Macupa {Eugenia malaccensis L.) is a fruit about the size of a sweet 
pepper and of somewhat the same shape, rather larger and quite red 
in color; it is, however, more lustrous, being almost resplendent. It is 
bitter-sweet in taste, somewhat agreeable, but has no solid flesh which 
can be eaten. 

Tampay {Eugenia jambos L.): This fruit is about the size of a small 
apple, the flesh being soft, sweet, and having an odor like roses. 

Duhat or limboy {Eugenia jambolona L.): This produces a wild 
fruit, dark purple to black in color, about the size of an olive. It is 
likewise a native of the Malay Archipelago. 

Guayabo {Psidium guayaba L.): This exotic plant comes from 
Mexico, but grows so well here that entire forests of it may be found. 
There are three principal varieties. The fruit is yellowish in color and 



280 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

very aromatic, as are likewise the leaves. The interior of the fruit is 
filled with little, hard seeds or pits, which are embedded in the flesh. 
It is a carminitive, and .its astringent properties make it an excellent 
preserve. With simple sirup it is much used. 

MUSACE.E. 

The banana is the most important of this family. In the Philippines 
there is a large number of species, varying greatly in their form and 
taste. The trunk of the banana tree is not solid, but soft and full of 
minute little tubes or aqueducts, which serve to conduct the sap which 
sustains and matures the plant within the short space of one year. 
Shortly after the fruit ripens the plant begins to decline and the leaves 
dry up and fall. The fruit grows in bunches of various shapes, accord- 
ing to the particular species. Important varieties are the saba (Musa 
sapientum L.), which is delicious and healthful when ripe; the hanipa, 
sweeter than the saba, and which is cultivated principally in Samar 
and Leyte; the tambonan, a veiy common and healthful species; the 
camada, very large; the binalatong, larger, more delicate, and more 
fragrant than the preceding; the tarip; the bungaran, rather indigesti- 
ble: the putian; the torlangdato, called in Spanish "the lady finger;" 
the pitbitin, a small, sweet, and rich variety; the dariao, a good variety: 
the mungco, the talood, the tinumbaga, the dariyas, and others. 
P. Delgado enumerates and describes 57 varieties, as may be seen in 
his history. 

CARICACE^E. 

Of this family there is but one Philippine species worthy of mention, 
the papaya (Oariea papaya L.). There are two sexes, the male and 
female. The male does not produce fruit, only some tubes tilled with 
small white aromatic flowers; the female produces fruit. The tree is 
soft and yellow, looks somewhat like a palm, and has large, broad 
leaves: the fruit somewhat resembles a small quash in appearance. 
When it ripens, the skin changes from green to a reddish color, as docs 
I he flesh also. The fruit contains a number of seeds somewhat similar 
to squash seeds; it is sweet, refreshing, delicate, and pleasant to the 
taste. The tree is indigenous to America. 

IM TACK.K. 

Of this family various oranges and lemons are found. Oranges of 
various indigenous species are found. The principal one is the cajel 
(Citrvsawrantvwm var.). Another variety ls the naranjitas (Citrus 
anrantmm). There are several wild species, one of which is called 
"amumimtay" (Citrus hystrix DC). They are very large, being L2 
or L3 inches in circumference, have a thick skin, are very juicv and 
bitter. 

"here are more than seven varieties of Lemons. The citron, which 
is very large, is also found in abundance. 

a \r"i \( I- 1 . 

1 h«> chico sapote (Achras s<t^<>t<i L.) and the chico mamey {Zucuma 
mamosa Gaert.) belongtothis family. The fruit is about (he size of an 
orange, green on the outside and black on the inside. It is sweet and 
agreeable and makes excellent preserves. It is a native of Mexico. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 281 



URTICACE^. 






Belonging to this family is the nangca or langea (Artocarpus integ- 
rifolia Willd.). It has been claimed that the fruit of this tree is the 
largest found in the world, as some of them are as large as a good- 
sized water jar. The tree is large and thickly branched; the leaves 
are long and narrow. The fruit is produced alike from the branches 
and from the main trunk of the tree quite close to the ground, and 
even from the roots, this last being especially true when the ground 
is somewhat elevated. The ripening fruit is recognized by its aro- 
matic and penetrating odor; the fruit is then cut. When opened along 
the middle it shows a large amount of yellowish or whitish meat, which 
is not edible, and a number of shells of a golden color each containing 
a seed. It resembles in sweetness the date, but it possesses an odor 
like musk. It is somewhat indigestible, but is quite nourishing. 
The seeds when boiled or baked somewhat resemble the chestnut. The 
wood of the tree is yellow, solid, durable, and very serviceable for 
working. It is a native of the Malay Archipelago. Other species 
are figs (Ficus carica L.), from western Asia; the rima {Artocarpus 
incisaLi.), from the Malay Archipelago; the dalanguian camansi (A. 
camansi BL), an indigenous plant, and the marang {A. polyphema 
Pers.), of Mindanao. 

VARIOUS WILD SPECIES. 

There is a large number of wild species of fruits found in the Philip- 
pines. They are in general sour, sweet, and somewhat carminitive. 
Among these may be mentioned the doctoyan, the pananquian, the 
durion, the abuli, amahit, angiap, amaga, agononan, abubunanu, ainga- 
nisan, dse amamampang, bonano, barobo or marobo, cabaan, carong, 
cagos, gayan, dalinson, etc., which are described by P. Delgado. 






CHAPTER X. 
VARIOUS VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 

ESSENCES OR ESSENTIAL OILS. 

There are various trees in the Philippines from which these essences 
or essential oils may be extracted, but the only ones utilized are the 
ilang-ilang (Cananga odorata Hook); sampaguita (Jasminum sambac 
L.); champaca (Michelia champaca, L.). 

Ilang-ilang (Cananga odorata Hook, Unona odoratissima Bl.). — This 
tree, belonging to the family Anonacere, produces ordinary look- 
ing flowers of a greenish color, but of great fragrance. The tree is 
utilized as a shade tree, and from its flowers, especially those of the 
mountain trees, a highly valued essence is extracted by distillation. 
This essence, called "ilang-ilang," has been popularized by the Parisian 
perfumers. This essence is exported in small quantities to France, 
England. Singapore, and China. 

Sampaguita (Jasminum sambac L.). — Sampaguita is a plant belong- 
ing to the family Oleaceas. From the white fragrant flowers a highly 
prized essence is extracted hy distillation b} T perfumers. 

Champaca (Michelia champaca L.). — The champaca belongs to the 
family Magnoliaceie, and is a tree about -t meters in height, conical 
in shape. The flowers are very fragrant, and about an inch in length. 
It is much cultivated in gardens, but is not found in the mountains. 
By distillation a well-known essence is extracted from the flowers. 



In the Philippines there is a large number of trees which produce 
resin. Sonic of these are used in medicine, some for illuminating 
purposes, others in the manufacture of varnishes, others in painting, 
and others for calking ships. The principal ones will be indicated by 
families: 

AraMacece. The limolimo (Heptapleurum caudatum Vid.) furnishes 
a resin used in the making of varnishes. 

BurseracoB (Abilo) (Garuga Horibunda Decne.) producesa resin used 
in medicine. The antong or brea negra (Canarvwm ]>!m<l<i Kom) pro- 
ducesa resin used for illumination. The pilior brea blanca ( CanaHum 
<<//>//„, Bl.) produces a resin which is used for illuminating purposes 
and tor calking ships. Tin* papsaingin (Canarium cumingti Engl.) 
produces a resin used for the same purposes.. 

Coni/ercB. The galagala or piayo (Jigathis orantifoUa Salisb.) pro- 
duces a resin which Is used for' burning, for lighting, and for the 
manufacture of Tarnishes. 

Dipt r< ',,1,'j >,/<■> <i . The apitongt Dipterocarpus grandifloi v us HI.) pro- 
duce- ;i resin used for illumination, fealao or malapaho (2)ipterocarpu8 
ydutinus Bl.) produces a resin used for calking. The mayapas 
(Itipterocarpua turbmafote Graert.) produces a resin similar to the pre- 
282 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 283 

ceding one, which is used for the same purposes. The duagling 
(Dipterocarpus sp.) produces a resin useful for illuminating purposes. 
The guijo (Shorea guiso Blume) produces a resin used for the same 
purposes as the preceding; as does the yacal (Hopea plagata Vid.). 
The resin from the \2LueL&n(A?iisopeterathurifera Bl.) is used for burn- 
ing, for the manufacture of varnishes, and for calking. The resin 
from the malaanonang (Dipterocarpus sp.) is used for calking. A 
resin used in medicine is obtained from the may apis (Dipterocarpus 
turbinatus Gaert.), and one useful for lighting purposes is obtained 
from the paua (Dipterocarpus vermicifluus BL). 

Enphorbiacece. — The resin from the alipata (Excmcaria ag allodia L.) 
is used as a remedy for the bites of poisonous animals; taken internally 
it produces dysentery. 

A medicinal resin is obtained from the birunga (Macaranga tanarius 
Muell-Arg.). The resin from the togocam (Claoxylon wallichianum, 
Muell-Arg.) is used for illuminating purposes and as a medicine. 

Guttifera. — The binucao (Garcinia sp.) produces a resin used in 
medicine. 

Leguminosce. — The adyangao (Albizzia procera Benth) produces a 
resin used as incense. A resin having medicinal properties is obtained 
from the caturay (Sesbania grandiflora Pens.). A resin useful for 
illuminating purposes is obtained from the cupang (ParMa roxburghii 
G. Don.). Another resin used for the same purpose is obtained from 
the cogontoco (Albizzia saponaria Blume). 

Melastomacew.—A. resin used for illuminating purposes and for 
calking ships is obtained from the bota-bota (melastoma obvolutwn 
Jack.). 

Rutacem. — A resin used for illuminating purposes is obtained from 
the cajel (Citrus aurantium L.), orange tree. 

/Sapindacew. — The balinghasay (Buchanania florida Schau.) is used 
for illuminating purposes and for calking ships. An illuminating 
resin is obtained from the ligas (Semecarpus perrottetii March.). 

Urticacew. — A resin from the breadfruit or antipolo (Artocarpus 
mincisa L.) is used as a medicine and as a bird lime for catching birds. 
The resin from the ambling (Artocarpus ovata Bl.) is used for making 
varnish. The resin from the camansi (Artocarpus camansi Bl.) is used 
as a medicine and as a drier. Nangca (A. integrifolia Linn, f.) pro- 
duces a resin used for illuminating purposes. 

GUMS (ALMACIGAS). 

In the Philippines the name of almacigas is given to most of the yel- 
lowish and aromatic resins. The most valuable ones are found in the 
Calamianes, while others are found in Mindanao, especially in Davao 
and in Ilocos. 

GUM RESINS. 

The principal trees which produce gum resins useful in medicine, 
painting, or the arts are: 

Anacardiacew, the casay or balubad (Anarcadiurn occidentale L.), 
which produces a gum resin used in the manufacture of varnish. 

Apocyneaz, the dita (Alstonia scholaris R. Br.), which produces a 
medicinal gum resin, as do those of the species Laniti (Wrightia). 

Euphorbiacece. — Medicinal resins are obtained from the bigabing 
(Macaranga mappa Mull. Arg.) and from the buta (Excmcaria sp.). 

p c— vol 3—01 29 



284 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

GuttifercB. — The palomaria or bitao (Calophyllum sp.), the bitanhol 
( ( 'alophyllum wallichiana Planch.), the gutagaby or tanglananac (Gar- 
cwda mordla Deri*.), and the gatasan-pula (Garcinia ventdosa Choisy) 
produce gum resins used in medicine. 

Leguminosce. — Two gum resins used in medicines are derived from 
thearomo (Acacia farnesiana Willd.) and the narra encarnada (Ptero- 
carpus indicus Willd). 

Myristicacece. — Medicinal resin is obtained from the dugoan (Myris- 
tica sp.). 

Patmce. — The bonga (Areca catechu L.) produces a resin used in 
medicine. 

Rutaececem. — The lucban or naranjo (Citrus decumaiia Murr.) pro- 
duces a gum resin likewise used in medicine. 

Urticacece. — The balete (Ficus indica Bl.) and the ban3^an tree (Ficus 
sp.) produce gum resins used in medicine. 

Sapotacem. — The notac (Palaquium sp.) produces a gum resin used 
as a glue and for other industrial purposes. 

GUTTA-PERCHA. 

Gutta-percha is found in considerable quantity in Mindanao, and is 
produced from the trunk and branches of several trees, from those of 
the genera Ficus and Palaquium. This tree is called by the Visayans 
solonot. In collecting this it is not best to follow the plan used b}^ the 
natives of cutting down the tree; large trees only should be selected, 
and these should be tapped. Beneath this incision on the bark or the 
trunk a bombon or large tube of bamboo is placed to collect the sup- 
ply. This product is then placed in a batea, or dish, where it is macer- 
ated with salt water, the dish being at the same time shaken. In this 
way the gutta-percha soon becomes solid; the water is then poured off 
and the gutta-percha is formed, while still plastic, into a plate or disk, 
but through the edge of which a hole is made, suspending it, and thus 
exposing it to the air, so that it may diy perfectly. This method pro- 
duces gutta-percha of rather inferior quality. 

A few years ago a considerable quantity of gutta-percha was exported 
to England, but on account of the many adulterations made by the 
Chinese merchants but little is now exported. 

VEGETABLE WAX. 

Many plants produce a certain amount of an oily material somewhat 
similar to beeswax. It is found sometimes as a deposit on the surface 
of leaves, fruit, or on the bark. This material is not of the same 
quality in all vegetables, although it has not been well studied. It is 
obtained from the palm (Ceroan/lon amdicolo) and from the Myrica 
>■< rifera. It is found in the Philippines, m the Calamianes, in Paragua, 
:ind in some other parts. It is obtained from the trees by scraping 
the hark. 



PAPER NO. VI. 



TIMBER AND FINE WOODS. 



285 



TIMBER AND PINE WOODS. 



The magnificent forests of the Philippine Archipelago constitute a 
source of great natural wealth, which is as yet almost undeveloped. 
They yield woods valuable for a great variety of purposes, and many 
of these woods are to be had at present in very great abundance. Cer- 
tain of them are unexcelled for sea piling and shipbuilding, not only 
because of their great strength, but on account of the fact that they 
are proof against the attacks of the sea worm (Teredo navalis). Others 
are particularly adapted to house construction in climates where humid 
atmosphere and intensely hot sun subject them to the severest tests. 
There are woods suitable for boat building, carriage building, and box 
making, and, finally, there are a considerable number of heavy, hard, 
fine-grained, and beautifully colored woods, which are admirable for 
cabinetmaking, and would make beautiful floors and inside finishings 
for the houses of those who could afford to pay for them. 

No systematic effort has ever been made looking to the exploitation 
of these woods, nor have they ever been carefully studied. The lum- 
ber used for local purposes in the archipelago is almost entirely hewn 
out or sawed by hand. So far as we are aware, there are at present 
but two steam sawmills in the Philippines. This is the more remark- 
able when one remembers that the local demand for lumber is steady 
and good, while China affords an excellent market for many of the 
better known woods. 

An explanation of this singular state of affairs may be found by 
taking into account the conditions which have existed in the past. It 
was formerly a tremendous undertaking to get machinery through the 
custom-house at Manila. The Spanish Government, more or less, sys- 
tematically interfered with the commercial development of the archi- 
pelago in this and other ways, and was especially hostile to all enterprises 
backed by foreign capital. While it was easy under the old laws to 
obtain a license to cut timber on government land in one or more prov- 
inces, one could not ship it after it was cut until it had been surveyed 
by a government official and a tax paid upon it at so much per cubic 
foot, the rate varying for the different classes of woods. 

It was, of course, easy for the government officials to fail to send an 
inspector until lumber rotted where it lay, and in this and other ways 
it was easy for the government to control not only the amount of tim- 
ber cut but the places for cutting it. In the early days of the Philip- 
pine lumber trade the government seized an entire ship's cargo of very 
valuable wood upon a flimsy pretext, and this occurrence, as well as 
the other facts above mentioned, served to make capitalists shy of 
investing heavily in what seemed a rather precarious enterprise. 

Heavy investment was necessary to the successful carrying on of a 
lumber business. It often happened that wood cutters were not to be 
found near the best forests and had to be brought from a distance. 

287 



288 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

This necessitated the making of cash advances to them in order that 
they might leave money behind for the support of those dependent on 
them. After houses had been erected so that they could live with their 
families, their improvident nature still rendered it necessary to make 
them constant advances against their future earnings. The sums 
invested in this way were often considerable, and a heavy percentage 
of loss had to be allowed for, as it was impracticable under the old 
judicial s}^stem to compel laborers to fulfill their contracts. 

It can not be doubted that under changed conditions and reasonable 
laws the lumber business in the Philippines will rapidly attain to 
greatly increased importance, while ebony and others of the very hard 
and beautiful woods will be placed upon the European and American 
markets. The labor problem will continue serious, for the present at 
least, unless Chinese are employed. The natives are wedded to their 
old customs and will insist on the usual advances, but as it is cus- 
tomary to pay them by measure for timber cut and delivered at some 
point previously agreed upon a lack of industry on their part does 
not necessarily result in financial loss to their employers. Lack of 
suitable means for land transportation will continue more or less of an 
obstacle for some time to come, and it will at first be necessary to 
confine operations to forests situated moderately near the sea or the 
larger fresh-water streams. 

The most extensive forests are to be found in Mindanao, Basilan, 
Tawi Tawi, Balabac, Palawan, and Mindoro. There are also very large 
areas in Luzon where no cutting has ever been done. In Samar. 
Masbate, and parts of Panay there are still considerable quantities of 
valuable timber. This is also true of Biliran, Tablas, Sibuyan, and 
many others of the smaller islands. 

The forest lands are, for the most part, the property of the Govern- 
ment. On account of their great value, suitable means should be 
promptly taken for ascertaining their extent and for preventing tres- 
passing upon them. There has been much needless destruction of 
valuable timber in the past. The plantations of the natives are speed- 
ily invaded by "cogon" and other strong-growing grasses, which they 
are powerless to combat with the crude agricultural implements at 
present in use, so they simply clear more forest land from time to 
time, and often burn the felled trees where they lie. 

The number of species of woods found in the archipelago is very 
large, as will appear from the subjoined list, which is, however, neces- 
sarily very incomplete. A careful investigation into the properties 
of these woods is greatly needed, and the results obtained would 
undoubtedly abundantly justify any reasonable expense which might 
be incurred. 

For further information concerning the lumber business in the 
Philippines see the testimony of Mr. Collins, volume of testimony. 
page 7!>. and of Mr. Yon Bosch, page 1<>>>. 

\ LIST OF l'lll I.I PPl nk WOODS, WITH BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MORE 
IMPORTANT OF THE KNOWN SPECIES. 

In preparing the subjoined list of Philippine woods, use has been 
made of the testimony taken by the commission and of the list given 
by Mr. John Foreman in his book, The Philippine Islands, as well 
as of a pamphlet entitled " Breve Descripcion de Algunas de las 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 289 

Maderas Mas Importantes y Mejor Conocidas de las Islas Filipinas," 
by Don Sebastian Vidal y Soler. 

It was found that a part of the official collection of woods belonging 
to the ■ ' Inspeccion de Montes " was in the hands of former United 
States Consul O. F. Williams, he having purchased it from some pri- 
vate individual. Consul Williams kindly loaned this collection to the 
commission, but other work prevented a detailed examination of the 
specimens before he required it again. At the last moment, brief 
notes were taken on the color and weight of the blocks. Some of the 
labels had been injured by insects, but so far as they were legible, the 
names of the woods in this collection have been incorporated in the list, 
with the above-mentioned information. 

It has been found that a number of the woods are entered under 
different scientific names in different lists; in some instances no scien- 
tific name is given; in others, we find the generic name only, or the 
generic and specific names without the name of the author. In general, 
it is not too much to say that the classification of the trees which pro- 
duce good woods in the Philippines is in a decidedly chaotic state, 
and it is to be hoped that some competent botanist will come to the 
rescue in the not far distant future. 

1. Aclang -parang (Albizzia sp.). — A wood of medium weight and 
dark ash color. 

2. Ache {Mimosa acle Bl.). — A tree of large size, giving logs up to 32 
feet long by 28 inches square. Wood a dark, dull red. It is strong, 
tenacious, and durable and takes a good polish. It is difficult to burn, 
and is much used for house construction in the Philippines, as well as 
for shipbuilding. It also affords an excellent charcoal. It is a hard 
wood with wavy grain and small pores. It has no perceptible odor. It 
breaks in long splinters and gives a rough and only slightly curled 
shaving. 

3. Alagao (Premna sp.). — A heavy wood of ashy color. 

4-. Alahan (Piospyros sp.). — An ashy wood of heavy weight. 

5. Almasiga or antang (Pipterocarpus sp.). — A light wood of ashy 
color. The tree distills a valuable gum. 

6. Alintatao (Pispyros philippi?iesis F. Vill.). — A tree with dark, 
hard wood like ebony. 

7. Alupay or Lecheas. — Yields a heavy wood of dark-gray color. 

8. Amuguis ( Cyrtocarpa quinguestila Bl.) — Yields a moderately hard 
wood, light red or flesh colored, and sometimes marked with lead- 
colored spots, with numerous pores of moderate size. It breaks in 
long splinters. It gives good boards, which are employed in house 
and ship building. This wood would be much used in the Philippines 
were it not so subject to the attacks of white ants. 

9. Amuyong (Melodorum fulgens). — A light straw-colored wood. 

10. Anagap. — The tree reaches a height of 60 feet, and gives logs 
up to 18 feet long by 16 inches square. The wood is a grayish yellow, 
of fine grain and somewhat brittle. It breaks in long splinters. It is 
used for furniture, inside house trimmings, and for other purposes 
where a light, durable wood is required which need not be exposed to 
the sun or rain. 

11. Anosep or Anusep. — Yields a wood of brownish or ashy red color 
and fine grain, with small pores, but somewhat fibrous. It is used, 
though not to any great extent, for building purposes. 



290 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

12. Antipolo (Artocarpus incisa, L.). — Tree of large size. Yields a 
wood varying in color from grayish }^ellow to canary }^ellow, and even 
dark red; sometimes marked with numerous white spots. Its texture 
is fibrous, and the pores are strongly marked. It breaks in long splin- 
ters. It is highly prized for outside planking and keels of vessels, for 
it is light, very strong, resists sea worms (Teredo navalis) entirely, and 
is not affected by climate. It does not warp when once seasoned, and 
is a very valuable wood. It is even somewhat used for cabinet work, 
but is not very highly prized for this purpose. 

13. Anubing, or Anubiong, or Anubin (Artocarpus ovata). — Tree of 
moderate size. Wood a brownish yellow to dark red. Of fine texture, 
with small pores. It breaks in short splinters. Much used for rafters 
in the native houses. 

1J+. Apiton (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus BL). — Tree of very large 
size. It distills an odorous and resinous gum, similar to that known 
to commerce as malapaho and employed in varnishing furniture, but 
it does not serve as a substitute for the latter gum. The wood is a 
light or dark greenish gray, with lighter or even white spots. It is 
of fine texture and brittle. It has no noticeable odor, and breaks in 
long splinters. According to Foreman it yields logs up to 70 feet 
long by 24 inches square. The wood works well, and serves for fur- 
niture and general joiner's purposes. Vidal rates it as a wood of third 
or fourth class. 

15. Aranga (Homalium sp.). — Trees are very large size, giving logs 
up to 75 feet long b}^ 24 inches square. The wood is of reddish color, 
with violet stripes. It is of compact texture and straight grain, 
though somewhat brittle. It is especially valuable for sea piling and 
shipbuilding, since it resists well the attack of sea worms. 

16. Asac-talon. — A very heavy wood of dark-red color. 
Asana. See Narra. 

17. Bacauan (Braguiera caryophilloydes Blum.). — A very heavy 
wood of dark-red color. 

18. Bagarilao (Nauclea sp.). — A light wood of dark-red color. 

19. Bahay (Lepidopetalum perrottetii Blum.). — A straw-colored 
wood of medium weight. 

W. Balacat (Zyzyphvx sp.).— A light straw-colored wood of medium 
weight. 

21. Ba/ffo^ in<tla]>aho,or panao (Dipterocarpus vemicijkms B. L.) — 
Tree of medium to Large size. Wood yellowish white or light green- 
ish gray; sometimes with tints of light rose and yellowish red. 
Texture quite variable, from soft to solid. It is fibrous, sometimes 
breaking in threads, and at others in short splinters. The pores are 
slightly marked. It is commonly uxvd in house building, but less so 
for ship construction. Canoes are made from it, although it is not 
one of {he woods most commonly employed for this purpose. Some- 
limes the reddish-yellow variety of comparatively linn texture is sold 
\'<>v ipil, to which it is inferior; but upon careful examination it is 
readily distinguished from the Latter wood, especially if one notes the 
size and distribution of the pores. It may be considered a second- 
class wood, [t produces the resinous gum known as balao or mala- 
paho, winch is fluid and odorous, and is employed for varnishing 
furniture, picture frames, etc., as well as for floors of rooms. Some 
business is done in it, hut it is not very highly thought of. 
Balayohod. A. dark grayish wood of medium weight. 






BEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 291 

23. Balibago (Hibiscus tiliaceus L.) — A light white wood. 

21^. Batitinan (Lag erstrcemia batitinan). — Tree of large size, giving 
logs up to 40 feet long by 18 inches square. The wood varies in color 
from an ashy red to an intense olive brown. It is of firm to very 
firm texture, with numerous small pores. It is very strong, tough, 
and elastic, and is commonly used for ships' planking above water. 
When properly seasoned it stands the climate well, but will not resist 
burial in the ground or exposure to sea worms. It is much stronger 
than teak, and could be used to advantage in place of the latter wood 
for almost all purposes. It can also be used for furniture, and may 
be considered a first-class wood. 

25. Banaba (Lagerstrmmina speciosa Pers.). — Tree 30 to 50 feet in 
height. The wood varies in color from reddish white to dull red. 
The fibers are longitudinal and compressed. The pores are broad and 
short, looking sometimes like tiny cracks. The wood breaks in short 
splinters, and its shaving is rough, porous, and little inclined to curl. 
The white variety is of coarser texture than the red, and its qualities 
are inferior. The red is the kind preferably emplo} r ed for ship and 
house construction. The wood is highly appreciated on account of its 
strength, and it resists the elements well, lasting for a long time under 
water. 

26. Banatanhisan. — A heavy wood of light brown color. 

27. Bangcal or Bancal (Sarcocephalus cordatus Mig., JSfauclea 
glaberrima D. C). — Tree of large size, giving logs 24 feet long by 16 
inches square. Wood of a golden yellow color, or sometimes green- 
ish j el low. Grain straight. Texture somewhat fibrous, but pores 
little marked. It breaks in long splinters. The wood is very easy to 
work, and is used in house building and in general joiner's work, but 
its most important use in the Philippines is for the construction of 
small canoes. 

28. Bani. — A very light white wood. 

29. Bannin. — A heavy white wood. 

30. Bansalagui (Mimusops elengi). — Tree is of great size, giving 
logs up to 40 feet long by 18 inches square. According to Foreman 
it is known in Europe as "bullet-tree wood." The wood is reddish 
white, with ashy spots, or a uniform bright red. It is of solid texture, 
fibrous, with small pores, and breaks in long splinters. Pins of it can 
be driven like bolts, and from this fact, and on account of its durabil- 
ity, it is much used in shipbuilding at Manila. It is well suited for 
making tool handles, and on account of its close grain is admirably 
adapted to turning, while its strength, elasticity, and durability mark 
it as a first-class wood. 

31. Bansio. — A whitish wood of medium weight. 

32. Bantigui.—A heavy, fine-grained wood, resembling rosewood 
in appearance. 

33. Banuyo (Dipterocarpus sp.). — A straw-colored wood of medium 
weight. 

3%. Barusang. — A heavy grayish-yellow wood. 

35. Baticuling or Baticulim, (Milingtonia quad/ripinnata Bl . ) . — Wood 
of a yellowish white or a greenish white, of soft texture, with numer- 
ous pores, of moderate size, with delicate, but clearly visible, medullary 
rays. It is easy to work, and takes a good polish. It is employed for 
joiners' work. There are many varieties. 

36. Batino (Dipterocarpus sp.). — Straw-colored wood of medium 
weight. 



2\)2 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

37. Bayucan {Diyterocarpus sp.). — A heavy wood resembling- maple 
in appearance. 

38. Betis{AzaolabetislS\..). — Tree of large size, sometimes giving 
logs up to 65 feet long by 20 inches square. The wood is brownish 
red or light red, with ashy-brown spots. Its texture is firm, with pores 
small and slightly marked. It is brittle, and breaks smoothly. It is a 
most valuable wood, especially useful for the keels of vessels, as it is 
proof against sea worm. It is also used for salt or fresh water piling, 
piers, wharfs, etc. 

39. Binayoyo. — A heavy reddish wood. 

40. Binnang {Macaranga mappa, Mull. Arg.). — A very light wood 
of grayish-white color. 

41. Binunga {Macaranga tanarius, Mull. Arg.). — A reddish wood of 
medium weight. 

4-2. Bitag {Calophyllum sp.). — A reddish-brown wood of medium 
weight. 

43. Bitang {Calophyllum spectabile,Y?\W<i.). — A grayish wood of 
medium weight. 

JfJf. Bitanhol or Bitanjol. See Palo-Maria. 

Jj5. Bolongita, Bolongeta* or Bol&nzeta {Diospyrospilosa ntJa era BL). — 
Wood a light-red color, or dark red, with streaks and spots of black. 
It is of firm texture, with only slightly marked pores, and gives a deli- 
cate shaving, flexible and curling. It breaks in short splinters. It is 
veiy useful both for building and cabinetwork. 

40. Baling {Plerospermum acerifoliuni Willd.). — A grayish-yellow 
wood of medium weight. 

47. Bucbuc {Streblus sp.). — A heavy white wood. 

J48. Btdac. — A white wood, very light and pithy. 

49. Buna. — A heavy, grayish-yellow wood. 

50. Caba {Fragrwa sp.). — A light whitish wood. 

51. Oabuy {Citrus htstrix V. C). — A heavy white wood. 

52. Calamansanay {Stephegyne sp.). — Wood varies in color from 
rosy white to bright red. Frequently of uneven color and has more 
intense spots. It is of firm texture and brittle, with pores slightly 
marked or imperceptible. When dry it is odorless, although when 
first cut it sometimes gives out an acid odor. It usually breaks in 
long splinters, although this is not always the case. The wood is 
useful for building and construction. 

58. ('(ihi/itas <>r Philippine cedar {Ced/rela odorata BL). — Tree of 
great size, giving logs up to 40 feet long by 35 inches square. The 
wood Is flesh color, brick red, or, in some varieties, a pale, ashy red. 
The pores are slightly marked, but the texture is somewhat coarse. 
Il breaks in short splinters. Its odor is agreeable and insects attack it 
verv little. It is used chiefly for the manufacture of cigar boxes. It 
also makes verv handsome inside house fittings. 

■ >' h CaUmanUw {Diospyros sp.). — A light yellowish-white wood. 

55. Calobcub {Eugenia macrocarpa Roxb.). — A very heavy wood, 
varying in color from dark brown to black. 

56. Cahwrvpang (SterouUa fostida L.). — A tree of very great size. 
Its wood is not highly valued, and Is employed cut into hoards. It is 
<>t brownish-yellow color, with pores slightly conspicuous, but numer- 
ous. It is easy to work, but lasts only a short time in the Philippine 
climate 

57. Calumpit (PermmaUa edulis L.). Tree of moderate size. Its 









EEPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 293 

wood is of dull-yellowish color, with ashy spots, or of a uniform ash 
color. It is soft, with straight grain, and somewhat brittle. Pores 
well marked and very numerous. It breaks in long splinters. Its 
ripe fruit, a drupe with black skin and red flesh, is edible. Its bark 
is used in some localities for dyeing cotton, which it stains a dirty 
straw color. 

58. Camagon (Diospyros pilosanthera vai\). — Tree of moderate size. 
Wood black, with narrow brown or yellowish-red streaks, and some- 
times with black spots. It is of very solid texture, with straight lon- 
gitudinally compressed fiber and broad, short pores, slightly marked. 
It takes a 'good polish, and breaks almost square. Its shaving is some- 
what rough, is compact, and does not curl at all. The wood is highly 
valued for cabinetwork on account of its color and polish. It is 
often confounded with ebony. It ordinarily comes into the market in 
logs 9 or more feet in length up to 12 inches in diameter. 

59. Camay nan. — Wood of very variable color. In some samples it is 
light red, in others violet, while yet others are bright red or brownish red. 
Spots, streaks, and clouds of a color different from that of the mass of 
the wood are found. It is probable that several different woods are 
known under this name, which would explain the fact that in some sam- 
ples the texture is very firm and compact, with almost imperceptible 
pores, while others are merely fine grained, not hard. Some have a 
strong and agreeable odor, while others are odorless. It breaks in 
short splinters, and is employed for building purposes, both in the 
form of small pieces and in boards. 

60. Oamuning (Muraya exotica L.). — Tree of small size, ordinarily 
12 to 15 feet high. Wood a bright ocher yellow, uniform or with 
wavy streaks and spots of brown. It is of compact texture, is quite 
hard, and lasts extremely well. It is used chiefly for cabinetwork. 
The Moros of the southern islands use it in making handles for their 
weapons. It is a beautiful wood and takes a fine polish. It is not 
employed for building on account of the small size of the pieces 
obtainable. 

61. Canafistula {Cassia fistula L.). — A medium- weight wood, white 
or light reddish in color. 

62. Cani-oi. — A wood of weathered grayish color and medium 
weight. 

63. Caronsan. — A heavy grayish- white wood. 

6Jf. Catmon (Dillenia philippensis Rolfe). — A heavy wood, resem- 
bling rosewood in appearance. 

65. Cayantol.—A heavy grayish- white wood. 

66. Cayatao. — A heavy reddish wood. 

67. Cay tan (Zanthoxylum oxiphyllum Edg.). — A heavy grayish- 
yellow wood. 

68. Cubi. — Wood yellowish brown with greenish spots. Its texture 
is moderately compact. The pores are numerous and of small size 
and are uniformly distributed. It is much used in building, chiefly 
for joiners' work, and is said to last very well. 

69. Cubing -manoc. — The color of this wood varies from a rosy white 
to brick red, sometimes with streaks and spots of lighter color. Its 
structure is very compact. The pores are well marked and show a 
whitish color, which makes them conspicuous. The wood is brittle 
and breaks in long splinters. It has no odor. It is a good wood for 
building purposes, although not in common use in the Philippines. 
It is also somewhat used for cabinetwork. 



294 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

70. Cutis (Memecylom eckila Roxb. ) . — A h eavy grayish-yellow wood. 

71. Cupang (Parkia roxburghii G. Don.). — A light wood of reddish- 
brown color. 

72. Dao {Dracontamielum sp.). — A light wood of dark-gra} T ish color. 

73. Dale (Terminilia). — A reddish-brown wood of medium weight. 
74- Dang ay or Bangay {Grewia sp.). — A reddish-gray wood of 

medium weight. 

75. Dang on or Danglig (Dipterocarpm sp. ) . — A grayish-yellow wood 
of medium weight. 

76. Dinglas yBuciba comintana BL). — Tree of good size, giving logs 
up to 30 feet long by 16 inches square, and sometimes even larger. 
Wood brownish or ashy red. Texture fine, with pores of moderate 
size. The wood is hard, heavy, and little subject to the attacks of 
insects. It is employed in the construction of edifices and ships, and 
would make a good substitute for black walnut. It is very durable. 

77. Dilang-bidigui (Podocarpus sp.). — A wood of light-gray color 
and medium weight. 

78. Dita {Alstonia scholaris). — A grayish-yellow wood of medium 
weight. 

79. Dolitan-puti (Garcinia sp.). — A heavy grayish-yellow wood. 

80. Dubat (Eugenia sp.). — A heavy dark-red wood. 

81. Dungol, or Dungon, or Dongon (Sterculia cimhifromis D. C). — 
Tree of large size, giving logs 50 feet long by 20 inches square. The 
wood is pale reddish in color and firm in texture. It is crossgrained, 
with inconspicuous pores. It has an odor of tanned leather. Its 
shaving is rough and only slightly inclined to curl. This wood is very 
hard to work, but lasts well. It is much used both in house and ship 
building, where more than ordinary strength and considerable length 
is required. It is especially strong in resisting heavy transverse 
strains, and is therefore much used for roof timber and for the keels 
of vessels, although it does not resist the attacks of sea worm. 

82. Ebano or Zuyong (Diospyros nigra L.). — Ebony. — This wood 
differs from camagon in its more intense and uniform black color, 
without brown or yellow streaks. It is very valuable for cabinetwork, 
and is also employed in the Philippines in making gunpowder. 

83. Gatasan-pula (Camingiana sp.). — A heavy red wood. 
84-. Guei/alas. — A reddish-brown heavy wood. 

85. Guijo, Guiso, or Guisoc (Dipterocarjnts gidso BL). — Tree of very 
large size, giving logs up to 75 feet long by 24 inches square. Wood 
Light red to dark red in color and of solid texture. It is crossgrained, 
with inconspicuous pores. It has an odor of tanned leather. It breaks 
straight across or into fibers. The shaving is rough and but slightly 
curled. It is hard to work, but very durable, and is strong, tough, and 
elastic. In Manila it is used for carriage shafts. In Hongkong it is 
employed for wharf decks and flooring. There are a number of 
varieties. 

86. a nun. A heavy grayish-yellow wood. 
Quyo. A heavy reddish-yellow wood. 

88. Hal njxuj. A very heavy red wood. 

89. Hvmhabao. A grayish-yellow w r ood of medium weight. 

90. Uang-Ucmg, or AUmg-ucmg (Uhona <>doratissima L.). — A tree 
better known for its flowers, from which is produced a valuable per- 
fume, than lor its white wood, which is soft and does not last well, 
being ', cr\ subject to the attacks of insects. 






REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 295 

91. Ipil, or Tpil {Eperua decandnra BL). — Tree of very large size, 
giving logs up to 50 feet long by 26 inches square. The wood is 
usually dark red, but in some cases is ocher yellow. The color grows 
more intense with age, especially in the red varieties. It is a tough 
wood with conspicuous pores. It has a slight but agreeable odor. It 
breaks in short splinters, and gives a very rough and closely curling 
shaving. It is a most excellent wood for building purposes and 
joiners' work. It has all the good qualities of molave, except resis- 
tance to sea worm, and lasts as well under ground. It is excellent for 
railroad sleepers. Attempts are often made by native dealers to sub- 
stitute balao or supa for it. 

92. Jagnd. — A very light whitish wood. 

93. Lanaan {Anisoptera thurifera). — A dark grayish wood of 
medium weight. 

94-. Zanete, lanate, or lanite {Anasser laniti BL). — A tree of moder- 
ate size, giving logs up to 25 feet long by 18 inches square. Its wood 
is bone white, or ashy white with white spots. It is of soft and com- 
pact texture, with inconspicuous pores. It breaks in long splinters 
and gives a delicate, curling shaving. It is valuable for cabinetwork, 
and is used for carved objects, musical instruments, inside decorations, 
and turning. It has also been used for making match boxes. 

95. Lanutak {Hibiscus). — Wood of reddish white or light red color, 
with narrow yellowish streaks. It is of fine texture, with straight 
grain and small pores. It is easy to work. It is commonly employed 
in cabinetwork and for inside finishing of houses. 

96. Laiian, lauaan, a?* saudana {Dipterocarpus thurifera L.). — Tree 
of large size, giving logs up to 75 feet long by 24 inches square. It 
yields a white and hard resinous gum, which has a strong odor and is 
sometimes used for incense in the churches. The wood is reddish 
white in color, or ashy with brown spots. It is soft and fibrous, with 
strongly marked pores. Its principal use is for the construction of 
canoes. It is said that the old Mexican galleons had their outside 
planking made of this wood, because it did not splinter when struck 
by cannon balls. 

97. Liga. — A heavy reddish-gray wood. 

98. Lipo {Eugenia sp.). — A heavy white wood. 

99. Loctob {Ficus laurifolia Blanco). — A grayish-yellow wood of 
light weight. 

100. Mabolo {Diospyros isocolor Willd.). — A very heavy white wood. 

101. Macasim, macasin, or macaasim. — There are two varieties, the 
red and the white. The former is very similar to batitinan in color, 
but is distinguished by its more compact texture and less conspicuous 
pores. It breaks square across and is less useful than batitinan for 
house and ship building. The second variety is of lighter color with 
yellowish streaks. It is considerably used for inside housework and 
flooring. It is somewhat inferior to banaba, but longer and broader 
boards can be obtained from it. 

102. Maeupa. — A very heavy red wood. 

103. Magaramhulo. — A heavy wood of grayish-yellow color. 

10 If. Malaanunang {Shorea malaanunang BL). — A light wood of 
grayish-yellow color. 

105. Malabayabas.—A very heavy wood, dark brown or black in 
color. 

106. Malabonga {Laurus hexcmdra Pers.).— Tree of moderate size. 



296 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Wood light red with orange streaks and sometimes with lead-colored 
spots. It does not last well in the Philippines, as insects attack 
it, especially white ants. Its flattened fibers, numerous medullary 
rays, and large, compressed pores are characters which make it easily 
recognizable. It is especially used for making common boxes. 

107. Malacadius (Litsea chinensis Lam.). — Wood canary yellow, 
darkening with time, and taking on greenish-brown tints. Texture 
fine, grain straight, pores inconspicuous. It breaks square across, and 
is odorless. It is used for beams and ribs in shipbuilding, and also 
gives good boards. 

108. Malacainote. — A very heavy wood of reddish-brown color. 

109. Malacatmon. — There are several varieties of this wood of differ- 
ent colors, two of which are especially deserving of mention. The first 
is brick red, with spots and streaks of black. Its pores are only slightly 
visible, while its medullary rays are numerous and well marked. The 
second is red, with a few streaks and spots of lead color. Its pores 
are abundant and conspicuous. Both are somewhat used for building 
purposes. 

110. Malacumon (Dillenia sp.). — A heavy straw-colored wood. 

111. Maladujat, Malarujat^ or Malaruhat {Myrtas subrubens Bl.). — 
Tree of large size. Wood of brownish-yellow color, with streaks of 
intense brown or ash. Occasional examples are earth red, with white 
spots. A compact and brittle wood, with delicate pores, which are 
sometimes quite conspicuous. It breaks square across, gives good 
boards, and is also somewhat used in making common furniture. 

11%. Malagaitmun — A heavy straw-colored wood. 

IIS. Malaiba {Phyllanthus sp.). — A light wood of whitish color. 

114- Malaitmo {Celtis philippinensis Blanco). — A heavy, light- 
colored wood. 

115. Malvbig (Syzygium sp.). — A heavy wood of dark-gray color. 

116. Malanangca. — A heavy white wood. 

117. Malapaho (Dipterocarjpus velutina Blanco). — A heavy dark- red 
wood. 

Malaruhat. See Maladujat. 

118. Malasantol (Thespesia populnea Corr.). — A heavy wood of whit- 
ish color. 

119. Malatalan, or Malatalang. — A somewhat brittle wood of red- 
dish color, with spots and streaks of black. Of fine grain with mod- 
erate sized pores. It is not much used for building. 

1W. Malatapay (Alangium octopetalum Blanco). — A yellowish wood 
spotted with brownish black, the spots growing darker with age. Tex- 
fcure very compact. It breaks in short splinters. Highly valued in 
thf Philippines for the construction of fine furniture. The tree is 
small and unfortunately not abundant. 

121. Malatiaong. — A heavy wood of grayish-yellow color. 

122. Malato. A Lighl wood of reddish color. 

123. Muhif <)<>!>. A dark-gray wood of medium weight. 

1'',. Malaturribaga (Oruaia spicata D. C). — Tree of large size. 
Wood varies in color from flesh red to brick red. It is of compact 
texture and easy to work. It is not at present much employed for 
building purposes. It gives very good boards for box making. 

125. Qlalauhvd. A straw-colored wood of medium weight. 

126. Malaya. A dark-gray wood of medium weight. 

127. Mamboo (St&phmgyne dvoerdfoUa Hook.). — A light wood, 
u > : i \ i-li w hite "m color. 



EEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 297 

128. Manabang. — A neavy wood of yellowish- white color. 

1*29. Mancalamian. — Wood of a reddish color with lighter streaks. 
Its texture is fine, somewhat fibrous, with numerous inconspicuous 
pores. Insects attack it. It is little employed in building in the 
Philippines. Only the natives use it in Luzon, and it is not ordinarily 
to be had in the market at Manila. 

ISO. Manayao. — A grayish-yellow wood of medium weight. 

131. Mancono (Xantliostemon verduganianus Nav.). — -A very hard 
and heavy wood found in the island of Mindanao. It is said to be a 
species of lignum vitse. It is of a deep chocolate color. 

132. Mangachapuy or Mangackapoi (Dipterocarpus mangackapoi 
Bl.). — Tree of large size, giving logs up to 55 feet long by 20 inches 
square. The wood is of two varieties, called red and white. The 
latter of these has compressed fibers and longitudinal pores, and is of 
compact texture, but brittle, breaking square across or in long splin- 
ters. Some specimens give off the odor of linseed. The shaving is 
somewhat rough, and hardly curls at all. The red variety is less com- 
mon, and is distinguished from the white only by its color. The wood 
of both varieties is very elastic, and when seasoned withstands the 
climate as well as teak. It is used for masts and decks of vessels, and 
for all work exposed to sun and rain, and is a very valuable wood. 

133. Mangasinoro (Fagroca volubilis Jack.). — Tree of veiy large 
size. The wood is ordinarily an ashy yellow, of straight grain, some- 
what fibrous, and of porous texture. It is soft and not very durable, 
and is consequently little used in building. 

IS If.. Manicnic or Manipnip. — Wood ashy red or light ashy. Tex- 
ture solid to very solid. Fibrous, with pores distinctly or very plainly 
marked, and the fiber somewhat twisted. It breaks in short splinters. 
It is used in house building, although not very extensively. 

135. Mapulat (Pdagium sp.). — A straw-colored wood of medium 
weight. 

136. Mara, Maran, or Marang. — The wood is a reddish yellow, of 
sometimes a dirty greenish white. It is of moderately fine texture. 
It breaks square across. It is probable that several woods are con- 
founded under the above name. 

137. Mayapi, or May apis (Dipterocarpus may op is BL). — Tree of 
large size. Wood reddish, with colored streaks and spots. It is soft 
and does not last well. On account of its lightness and the ease with 
which it can be worked, it is considerably used for box making. 

138. Midbid (Lagerstramia sp.). — A heavy wood, of reddish brown 
color. 

139. Molave (Vitex geniculata Bl.).— Tree of good size, giving logs 
up to 35 feet long by 24 inches square. Wood yellow, yellowish 
green, or ashy, of compact and fine texture, with small pores fre- 
quently almost imperceptible. Its odor is slightly acid, and it stains 
water yellow. It has a slightly bitter taste. It breaks in short splin- 
ters. Its shaving is delicate, flexible, and curling. Molave resists sea 
worms, white ants, and the action of the tropical climate. It is an 
extremely strong and durable wood, of great value. It lasts well 
under ground. Foreman characterizes it as "practically everlasting," 
and quotes Mr. Thomas Laslett, timber inspector to the British admi- 
ralty, as saying that "It can be recommended to notice as being fit to 
supplement any of the hard woods in present use for constructive 

p c— vol 3—01 30 



298 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

purposes." It is very highly valued in the Philippines for "building 
purposes, and is called by the natives " The queen of woods." 

1%0. Mulang-u. — A heavy wood of dark gra} 7 color. 

14,1. Narra, Naga, or Agana. — There are two species. The first of 
these comes from Pterocarpus santalmus L. The tree is large, giv- 
ing logs up to 35 feet long by 26 inches square. The wood is known 
as the mahogany of the Philippines, and is much employed in the 
manufacture of furniture. It varies in color from scarlet to blood red, 
is of solid texture, but very brittle. It easily takes a beautiful polish; 
it breaks in short splinters; it has an agreeable odor; it is an admi- 
rable wood for cabinet purposes. From the bases of the trunks of the 
largest trees magnificent pieces are sometimes obtained of sufficient 
size to make tops for large dining tables. 

HI. Narva Blanca, or Narra Amarilla, JVaga Asana, or Agana 
(white or yellow Narrd). — From the species Pt^ocarpus paZUdus Bl. 
Its wood is ocher-yellow with brown streaks. It darkens with time, 
taking a brownish-} r ellow color. There are specimens which show a 
color intermediate between that of this and the preceding species. 
The texture is fine and the pores are usually less conspicuous than in 
red narra. It breaks in long splinters. Both species distill a resinous 
gum of reddish color. It is very fluid at first, but hardens upon dry- 
ing, and is emplo} T ed in finishing furniture. 

11$. Nato (Sterculia balanghas L.). — Tree of large size. Wood red- 
dish white with delicate spots of more intense color; sometimes it is 
rosy and occasionally even brick red. It is of compact texture, fibrous, 
breaks square across, and has no noticeable odor. It is used especially 
for joiner's work. 

143. Opac. — A very light wood, yellowish white in color. 

144. Pagatpat, Palopad, or Palatpat (Sonneratiajiagatp'it Bl. )• — Tree 
of moderate size, frequent along the seashore, growing with its trunk 
partially submerged at high tide. Its roots send up conical processes 
from the sand for a considerable distance around its base, producing a 
singular appearance. They somewhat resemble cork on account of 
their soft, spongy structure and their small weight, The natives use 1 
them in place of cork. The wood is reddish in color and of various 
tints. Its texture is moderately compact. It is used somewhat for 
building, especially for work under water. It is superior to the wood 
of the other mangroves (species of the genus Rhizophora), which are 
not here described on account of their small importance. It does not 
find a very ready sale at Manila, 

//■''. Pahuhuta/n (Mamgifera Xongipes Griff.). A light white wood. 

14/J. Petit.— A very heavy red wood. 

///. Paitan. — A light white wood. 

148. Palaym&r Roole. Several species of the genus Quercus occur 
in the Philippines. 

llfi. Palins.- Numerous genera of this extensive family are repre- 
sented in the Philippines, such as Cocos, Arica. Borassus, Calamus, 
Caryota, Coripha, etc. From one and another of the species the 
natives gel food, drink, houses, clothing, and illuminating oil. For 
structural purposes the species known collectively under the name 
"Palma brava" are most important. The hard 'outer wood resists 
moisture rery well, and the natives convert their trunks into tubes for 
conducting water by simply removing the inner fibrous portion. 
Palme brava is also usvd for rafters in house building, for piles, and 



REPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 299 

for telegraph poles. It is well adapted to the latter purpose on account 
of its small cost and great durability. Handsome canes are made from 
the hard outer wood, and the natives often fashion bows from it. 

150. Palo-maria, or Bitanjol, or Bitanhol {Callophylhmi inophyl- 
lum, D. C.) — Tree of moderate size; wood, light red; of fibrous tex- 
ture, with large pores. It breaks in long splinters. The shaving is 
rough and strongly curled. The tree is said to acquire gigantic pro- 
portions in Mindanao. The wood is exceedingly tough, and, as it 
often has good crooks, is much used for shipbuilding, though in the 
northern islands it can seldom be obtained in pieces of suitable size for 
large vessels. It is lighter than Molave, and does not corrode iron 
bolts as does that wood. It is said to produce "tar," oil, and an excel- 
lent balsam for curing wounds. 

151. Palo napuy. — Wood violet red with blackish spots. Texture 
compact, fine-grained and fibrous. Pores inconspicuous. It gives off 
a mild odor of tanned leather. It is somewhat employed for building 
purposes. It is hardly known in the Manila market and is not exported. 
Nevertheless, it is a wood which is not to be despised, and might prove 
valuable. 

152. Palsaguynguin. — A grayish-yellow wood of medium weight. 

153. Palusapis. — A light wood of dark straw color. 
154-. Panao.—A light grayish-yellow wood. 

155. Panguisan. — The wood is of an ashy yellow color, moderately 
porous and not very durable. It is somewhat used for building purposes. 

156. Panaybanay (Plerospernum sp. ) . — A very heavy wood of grayish- 
brown color. 

157. Panosilo. — The wood known by this name is of a yellowish- 
white color and of somewhat fibrous texture, with large and numerous 
pores. It is not very beautiful, nor is it much used. It is not ordi- 
narily to be met with in the Manila market and is not exported. 

158. Pasac {Mimosops erythroxylon Bos.).— Tree large; wood hard, 
tough, and durable, of reddish-white or flesh-red color. Texture varies 
from fibrous to quite compact; pores plainly visible; it gives off no 
odor and breaks square across. It is employed for building purposes 
like 3 r acal, to which wood it is, however, inferior. This wood is more 
and more used as the time goes by, and is increasing in value. 

159. Pasquit (Memecylon panicidatum Jack.). — A heavy wood of 
reddish color. 

160. Pili ( Comarium sp.). — A straw-colored wood of medium weight. 

161. Pino or polo pino (Pinus insularis Endl.). — Tree very large; 
in the mountains of Ilocos, Lepanto, and Benguet specimens of tre- 
mendous size are seen; wood very resinous. The wood is not to be 
found in the Manila market nor is it exported. The tree is very abun- 
dant in the mountains of north Luzon, and it is said that the gather- 
ing of its resin would be profitable. 

162. Puso puso (Litsea littoralis Benth.). — A reddish-yellow wood 
of medium weight. 

163. Putat (Barringtonia racemosa BL). — A white wood of medium 
weight. 

164.. Putotan orpototan. — A reddish-brown wood of medium weight. 

165. Sampoc (Tamarindus indica L.). — The tamarind. It acquires 
a great growth in the Philippines, and its roots are used for carpenter's 
work. 

166. Scmtol or somtor (Sandoricum indicum Cav.). — The tree attains 



300 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

a height of 12 meters, with a diameter of 1 meter. Its wood is red- 
dish and of strong texture, with undulating grain and with the pores 
but slightly visible. It breaks into short splinters and gives a delicate 
and somewhat curling shaving. It is little employed for building pur- 
poses and is not exported to any considerable extent. 

167. Sibucao or palo-sapang (Oesalpinia sappana). — An orange-red 
wood of fine and fibrous texture, with pores of moderate size. Pegs 
made from it are used in the manufacture of small sailing craft in 
place of iron spikes and nails. It produces a red coloring matter, 
similar to logwood, which is used for dj^eing wool and cotton. This 
substance is most abundant in the small branches, which are exported 
in considerable quantities. The wood is useless for building purposes. 

168. Sirique. — A grayish-j-ellow wood of medium weight. 

169. Soli/pa or sidipa (Suli/pa pseudopsidiinn, Bl.). — The so-called 
" false guava •" is a tree of small size which abounds in some provinces 
of Luzon. Its wood is a canary yellow or greenish 3 r ellow. It is of 
fibrous texture, with numerous and conspicuous pores. It has no odor. 
It breaks in long splinters. It is employed for cooper's work, but is 
little used for building purposes. 

170. Supa (Dipterocarpus sp.). — Tree of large size; wood yellowish 
or dirty ocher, becoming brownish }^ellow in time. It sometimes 
shows reddish tints. It is very similar to ipil and is employed in place 
of the latter wood for house and ship building, but is, nevertheless, 
considerably inferior to it. Persons buying lumber should familiarize 
themselves with this wood in order to avoid fraud. 

171. Tahigui-itim. — A heavy wood of deep-red color. 

172. Taboo (sEgle decandra Naves). — A heavy white wood. 

173. Taliswy (Terminalia catappa). — A dark straw-colored wood of 
medium weight. 

1? %. Tamauyan-piiti (Gynnio.porla sp.). — A light white wood. 

175. Tangile or temgili or tanguili (Dwterocarpns polyspt rm us Bl.) — 
Tree of large size; wood brownish red and of very fine texture, but 
with large and numerous pores. It breaks squarelv across. It is 
much used for the construction of canoes and also for joiner's work. 

176. Ta/ngisam (Ficus sp.). — A white wood of medium weight. 

177. Tupal.—K very heavy wood, with black and white stripes. 

178. Teca (Tectona gremdts L.). — The teak, which constitutes one 
of the principal sources of wealth in the Indian forests, exists in (lie 
Philippines, but is little known. It has been observed in Mindanao 
and is said to exist in Negros. 

179. Tiba/yos or tubayos. -A heavy slate-colored wood. 

180. Tibig (Ficus gwmerala Blanco). — A white wood of medium 
weight. 

181. Tunim, pantay.- A light-gray wood of medium weight. 

182. Tmdalo (Eperua rhomhomea HI.). — Tree of large size: wood 
of light red, shading to dark vvd when freshly cut. It grows darker 
with age and in time becomes almost completely black. Sometimes 
the color is uniform, sometimes it shows darker streaks and spots. 
The wood is of solid texture and somewhat cross-grained. It gives a 
rough shaving, very porous, and not curled. It is used for house 
decoration ana the manufacture of fine furniture; occasionally also 
for building, hut not much, as it is difficult to get pieces of suitable 
size. It is somewhat brittle and takes a high polish. 

183. Ti/ngcm-tingan (Ptewsperrn/um obviquum Blanco). — A dark 
straw-colored wood of medium weight. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 301 

18^. Toob (Bisehqfia javanica Mull. Arg.). — A light-gray wood of 
medium weight. 

185. Tooc or toog. — A heavy dark-red wood. 

186. Tucangcalo (Sterculia rubiginosa Vent. Hook.). — A heavy 
dark-red wood. 

187. Yacal or sajplungan (Dipterocarpus plagatus Bl.).— The trunk 
of this tree reaches a height of 40 to 60 feet, with a diameter of 2 to 3 
feet. It gives logs up to 50 feet long by 22 inches square. It is of 
an earthy-} T ellow color and of solid and fine texture. It breaks in long 
splinters and gives a delicate shaving closely curled. It is proof 
against white ants and has great strength and tenacity. It is much 
used in house building as well as in shipbuilding. It is one of the 
heaviest and most enduring of the Philippine woods. 

USES OF THE MORE IMPORTANT WOODS. 

The more important and better known of the woods enumerated in 
the foregoing list may be grouped according to the uses to which they 
are especially adapted, as follows: 

FOE CABINETWORK. 

Ebano, Camagon, Bolongita, Tindalo, Narra, Malatapay, Alintatao, 
and Camuning, for fine furniture. 

Lanete, Narra blanca, Lanutan, Malarujat, Batitinan, and Antipolo, 
for common furniture. 

FOE SHIPBUILDING. 

Yacal, Betis, Dungon, and Ipil, for keels and sternposts. 

Antipolo, for keels and outside planking. 

Molave, for futtock timbers, stems, crooks for framework. 

Banaba, for outside planking r beams. 

Guijo, for beams, masts, and yards. 

Batitinan, for keelsons, clamps. 

Mangachapuy, for waterways, deck timbers. 

Amuguis, for upper works, partitions. 

Palo-maria, for futtock timbers, masts and } r ards. 

The last-mentioned wood does not last well. 

FOE CANOES. 

Tangile, lauaan, malaanonang, balao, ma} T apis, and man} T other woods 
not so well-known. 

FOE HOUSE BUILDING. 

Molave, for beams, framework, doorcasings, window casings, floor 
boards, etc. 

Ipil, same as molave. 

Supa and balao are substitutes for ipil, but very inferior to it. 

Dungon, for rafters, door and window jambs, clamps, etc. In gen- 
eral for all parts that are required to afford great resistance and do not 
involve much shaping. 

Banaba, emplo} T ed for various purposes. Excellent for all parts 
exposed to the action of moisture, which it resists excellently. 



302 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



Yacal, excellent for framework. 

Amuguis, baticulin, and malaturnbaga, used in form of boards for 
partitions, ceiling work, etc. 



FOR BOX MAKING. 



Calantas, for cigar boxes and fine boxes in general. 

Tangile, mayapis, and malaanonang, for common boxes. 

There are also many other woods suitable for box making and simi- 
lar work on account of their abundance and the ease with which they 
are sawed. 

The more important Philippine tvoods arranged according to weight. 



Name. 



Ebano 

Camagon 

Yacal 

Pagatpat 

Anusep 

Manicnic 

Dungon 

Molave 

Teca 

Tindalo 

Bolangita 

Camayuan 

Ipil 

Pasac 

Lanutan 

Banaba 

Cubi 

Culing-manoc . 
Mangachapuy. 

Calumpang 

Panguisan 

Betis 

Acle 

Guijo 

Macasin 

Bansalagui 



Weight 



Specific 



pe f°rw* 



inch 



Grams. 
13.2 
13.2 
12.79 
12.15 



11.50 
11. 449 
10.499 
10.75 
10. 749 

9.829 

9.260 
10.510 
10. 150 
10. 499 
10. 099 

7.540 

9.939 

9.665 
11.185(?) 

9.829 

8.015 

9.290 

9.730 

8.780 

9.280 



1.153 
1.153 

.925 

.898 

.870 

.861 

.833 

.819 

.816 

.809 

.789 

.788 

.785 

.785(?) 

.784 

.776 

.581 

.773 

.766 

.765 

.745 

.719 

.709(?) 

.685 

.683 

.676 



Nanie. 



Weight 

per cubic 

inch. 



Calumpit 

Malatalan 

Calamansanay 

Malarujat 

Narra 

Apiton 

Pino 

Tangile 

Antipolo 

Anubiong 

Malacadius . . . 

Nato 

Palo-rnaria 

Palo-napuy . . . 

Calantas . * 

Amuguis 

Bancal 

Mayapis 

Baticuling 

Lanete 

Anagap 

Santol 

Marang 

Sulipa 

Balao 



Qrams. 
8.550 
8.290 
9.630 
8.240 
8.240 
7.565 
7.250 
7.590 
7.590 
6.990 
7.590 
7.540 
7.290 
7.340 
7.374 
7.414 
6. 734 
6.839 
6.;. 90 
6.585 
6.389 
5.459 
5.990 
5. 240 
5.090 



Specific 

gravity, a 



0.666 
.662 
.643 
.641 
. 634 (?) 
.615 
.606 
.603 
.593 
.593 
.580 
.579 
.571 
.571 
.563 
.538 
.521 
.511(?) 
.500 
.495 
.486 
.470 
.465 
.419 



a Should be reckoned over. Vidal's table evidently full of mistakes. 
The more important foods arranged according to elasticity. 



Name. 



Calantas 

Bolipa 

Antipolo 

Lanete 

Anagap 

Macasin 

Baticulin 

Apiton 

Amuguis 

Bancal 

Anubiong 

Marang 

Calumpang . 

Malarujai 

Calumpll 

Banaba 

Anuslp 

Malatalan. . . . 

Mam. Hi.' 

Acle 

Calamansanaj 

Nana ." 

Balao 

Molavi 



Elasticity. 



,0075 
, 0072 
,0070 
,0068 
,0060 
,0062 
0050 
,0050 
,0060 
, 0060 
. 0060 
.0048 
.0046 
,0046 
.iKill 

.(Kill) 

.(H)lll 
.(Kill) 
.0040 
.0087 
.0087 
.0087 



Name. 



Guijo 

Palonapuy . . . 

Tindalo 

Cubi 

Yacal 

Camayuan 

Santol 

Bolongita 

Dongon 

Mangachapuy 
Nato 

Teca 

Malacadius. . . 

Panguisan 

Pino 

Betis 

Mayapis 

Ij.il 

Ebano' 

Camagon 

Bansalagui . . . 
Culing-manoc 

Lanutan 

Pagatpat 



Elasticity. 



0.0035 
.0035 
.0034 
.0084 
. 0082 
. 0082 
. 0082 
. 0030 
.0080 
.0080 
. IRWO 
.0028 
.0028 
. 0028 
.0028 
. 0026 
. 0026 
.0021 
. 0022 
. 0022 
. 0020 
.0020 
.0020 
.0014 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



303 



The more important woods arranged according to power of resistance. 



Name. 



Pagatpat 

Bansalagui . . . 

Yacal 

Culing-maloc . 

Manicnic 

Ipil 

Molave 

Narra 

Cubi 

Guijo 

Acle 

Ebauo 

Camagon 

Tindalo 

Calamansanay 

Anusip 

Pino 

Palonapuy 

Palo-maria 

Panguisan 

Camay uan 

Dungon 

Bolongita 

Calumpang . . . 
Antipolo 



Weight re- 
quired, to 
break. 



Kilograms. 
63. 263 
58. 087 
54.981 
46. 699 
46. 009 
44.658 
41. 552 
41.523 
41.237 
40. 747 
40. 594 
40.028 
40. 028 
39. 539 
38.522 
36. 938 
36.347 
36. 369 
35. 586 
35.427 
35.341 
35. 140 
34.967 
34. 679 
34. 235 



Name. 



Mangachapuy 

Lanutan 

Bancal 

Betis 

Balao 

Malatalan 

Nato 

Banaba 

Tangile 

Macasin 

Malarujat 

Pasac 

Mayapis 

Lanete 

Santol 

Anubiong 

Malacadius . . . 

Anagat 

Calumpit 

Apiton 

Baticulin 

Calantas 

Marang 

Sulipa 



Weight re- 
quired to 
break. 



Kilograms. 
33. 127 
32. 667 
31. 804 
31. 718 
31. 545 
31. 286 
31. 286 
29. 820 
29. 676 
28.526 
27. 375 
27. 145 
26. 915 
26. 829 
26. 312 
25. 765 
24. 845 
23. 465 
22. 602 
21. 624 
21. 394 
21. 222 
20. 705 
12.422 



PAPER NO. VII. 



ZOOGKAPHT 



305 



ZOOGEAPHY, 



INTRODUCTION. 

Although the zoology of the Philippine Islands has been more studied 
than have their botany and geology, still the work may be said to have 
only been fairly begun, even in the case of those groups of animals 
which have been most carefully investigated. In general it may be said 
that the Philippines are characterized by a scarcity of mammals, by a 
rich bird fauna, which includes a very high percentage of species 
peculiar to the group, and by the enormous abundance and great variety 
of the land mollusca. The distribution of the mammals and birds 
within the limits of the archipelago is a most interesting study, which 
has already thrown much light on the probable past geological his- 
tory of the group. The study of zoography in the Philippines is, 
however, as yet in its infancy. The results thus far reached will be 
briefly discussed under the chapters devoted to mammals and birds. 

In general it may be said that the Philippines politically speaking, 
and the Philippines zoologically speaking, are not identical areas, for 
Balabac, Palawan, and the Calimianes islands are strongly character- 
ized by the presence of numerous Bornean forms which are conspic- 
uously absent throughout the remaining islands of the archipelago. 
Although the Philippines are commonly held to form an eastern exten- 
sion of the Indo -Malayan subregion, it should not be forgotten that 
at least among the birds and mammals there is a large amount of spe- 
cialization in the islands to the eastward of the Baladac-Palawan- 
Calimianes group. 

It is not our purpose to enter into a detailed discussion of the zool- 
ogy of the Philippines, and we shall content ourselves with briefly 
mentioning a few of the more important or interesting forms in the 
various groups. 

MAMMALS. 

As already stated, the Philippines are very poor in mammals; and 
this fact is the more surprising when one compares them with the 
neighboring island of Borneo in this respect. They are undoubtedly 
well adapted to a large and diversified mammalian fauna, and the only 
plausible explanation of the scarcity of forms is to suppose either that 
they have never been connected with Borneo and the Asiatic conti- 
nent or that, if at one time connected, they have since been subjected 
to such subsidence as to wipe out the greater part of their mammalian 
fauna. 

307 



308 REPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Apparently, however, there has been a comparatively recent con- 
nection of short duration between the Calamianes Islands, Palawan, 
Balabec, and Borneo. This would account for the strong Bornean 
character so plainly to be noted in the mammals of these islands. 

There are no marsupials in the group. The edentate, or toothless 
mammals, are represented by the pangalin (Manis sp. ?), which is 
abundant in Palawan and the Calamianes group. This curious animal, 
known to the natives as balington, has its whole dorsal region protected 
by thick scales, and when molested rolls itself up into a ball. It feeds 
at night, living largely on ants, which it licks up with its long protrusi- 
ble sticky tongue. 

In the seas of the archipelago we have the dolphin ; the cacholet, from 
which spermaceti is obtained; whales, and, finally, the dugong, or, as 
the natives call it, woman fish. Beads are made from its tusks. This 
animal is said to be constantly growing scarcer in the Philippines. 

The horses which exist in the Philippines were imported from 
Mexico, China, or Borneo. They are of small size, but well formed 
and tough. Little care has been exercised in breeding them, and they 
might doubtless be greatly improved. Neither Australian nor Euro- 
pean horses have thus far done well in the Philippines. It is said that 
the grass, which is somewhat harsh, gives them intestinal trouble, and 
that the great moisture during the wet season causes foot disease. 
Good results have been obtained with American cavalry horses by 
feeding them young rice leaves or imported hay. 

Wild hogs of at least two species occur in the Philippines. In some 
of the islands, notably Tawi-tawi, they are extremely numerous, and 
they often cause the natives no little trouble and loss b} r destroying 
their crops at night. They are much hunted, both on this account 
and for the sake of their flesh, which is excellent. The boars some- 
times attain to immense size, and hunting them is by no means unat- 
tended with danger. In Tawi-tawi, during the season when the dureian 
tree ripens its fruit, the wild hogs become so fat that the natives insist 
they die of heat when hard pressed by dogs. 

The curious babyrusa of Celebes has been said to occur also in Min- 
danao, but this statement is probably incorrect. 

Domesticated hogs of black color are to be found in numbers in 
every native village. They cross more or less freely with the wild 
species. Few white men who have observed their habits care to eat 
their 1lesh. 

Deer are extremely abundant in many parts of the archipelago, and 
their flesh, like that of the wild hog, forms an important article of 
food for the Datives, while their skins and horns are put to various 
practical uses. In Sulu there is a beautiful axis deer, which has almost 
certainly been introduced there by man. Neither this nor any other 
species occurs on the island of Tawi-tawi. In Basilan, Mindanao, 
Leyte, Samar, Luzon, Mindoro, and the Calamianes Islands there are 
deer of red or brown colors, without spots when adult. The exact 
cumber of species and their respective ranges have 4 Dever been satis- 
factorily determined. 

Finally, in Masbate, Panay, Guimaras, and Negros there is a beau- 
tiful dark-colored deer, marked throughout life with buff spots. 

Sheep and goats have been Imported into the islands from China and 
Mexico. The goats do well, but the sheep do not. It is said, however, 
that experiments made with them in the highlands of Benguet have 
resultea very successfully. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 309 

Humped cattle are raised on most of the islands, notably in Masbate, 
the Calamianes group, and some of the small islands north of Luzon. 
They are killed for their fleshy hides, and horns, and little attention is 
paid to milk-giving properties. Australian cattle have been brought 
to Manila from time to time, but have suffered greatly from disease. 
The establishment of good modern dairies, within easy reach of Manila 
and other large cities, would seem to be likely to prove a practicable 
and remunerative enterprise. At present cows' milk is difficult to 
obtain, while cream, fresh butter, and pressed cheese can not be had 
at any price. 

The most important domesticated mammal in the Philippines is the 
water buffalo, or carabao. It occurs wild in Luzon, Mindoro, the 
Calamianes Islands, Masbate, Negros, and Mindanao, and probably 
also in other islands of the group, but it is believed that the wild herds 
have originated from domesticated animals which escaped after being 
imported into the islands. It is said that Mindoro herds sometimes 
number as many as 200. Although bullocks are sometimes used as 
draft animals, the carabao is par excellence the beast of burden in 
the Philippines. They are tolerably strong, but are sluggish in their 
movements, and can not long endure the heat of the tropical sun when 
at work. If one forces them on they are likely to lie down in the first 
puddle or stream encountered, and refuse to get up. If pushed too 
hard, they die of the heat, and in cases of emergency water should at 
least be poured over their heads and along their backs from time to 
time. If left to themselves they will pass the greater part of the day 
in a mud bath. 

They are wonderful swimmers, and do not hesitate to cross 10 miles 
of open sea. When feeding in the water, they frequently submerge 
their heads for some time in order to get at the roots of water plants, 
it seems impossible to mire them, and on this account they are 
extremely useful during the rainy season. They breed freely, but 
are frequently swept off in great numbers by epidemics of disease. 
They are often tended and driven by small children, who clamber up 
their hind quarters on to their backs, supporting themselves mean- 
while by hanging on to their tails. In spite of their apparant gentle- 
ness they have been known to attack and kill their masters, and in the 
more remote towns they sometimes display a violent dislike for white 
men, occasionally stampeding at the mere smell of one. Their flesh 
is eaten by the natives, but is tough, stringy, and rather tasteless. 
Their hides and horns are put to various vises. The natives believe that 
pieces of burned buffalo horn will cure snake bite. 

Hunting the wild buffaloes is a much more exciting and dangerous 
sport than one would expect. When wounded they charge home 
viciously, and if they once get into close quarters it is all up with the 
hunter. They have been repeatedly known to kill men after being 
shot through the heart. In hunting them the natives sometimes use 
trained tame buffaloes as decoys. Success can be hoped for only at 
night. The tame animal feeds along, slowly approaching the wild one 
up the wind, and the hunter creeps along in his shadow. When close 
alongside of his victim he slips round behind him, and attempts to 
hamstring him with two blows of his bolo. If he fails, his carelessness is 
apt to cost him his life. In the Calamianes Islands long fences are 
sometimes constructed, gradually running together and leading into a 
pen, and drives are held which sometimes result in the capture of 

p c— vol 3—01 31 



310 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

considerable numbers of buffalo. The younger ones are readily 
domesticated; the older ones are sometimes brought to subjection by 
the cruel method of tying them up and leaving them without food or 
water until they are completely exhausted and nearly starved. 

By all odds the most interesting mammal in the Philippines is a 
small island buffalo, called by the natives timarru, peculiar to the 
island of Mindoro. In color it resembles the water buffalo, but it is 
very much smaller than that animal. Its short, strong, and sharply 
pointed horns run almost directly backward, somewhat like those of 
an antelope. Unlike the carabao, it never bathes in the water or wal- 
lows in the mud. It sleeps during the day, hidden away in the densest 
jungle. At night it comes forth to feed, and some time before morn- 
ing visits a neighboring water course in order to drink. Hunting it 
is both difficult and dangerous, so much so, in fact, that it is only 
within a few years that a series of specimens has been obtained for 
scientific investigation. One must pick up a trail along some water 
course and follow it as best he may. The timarru is short legged, 
and in going through the forests it puts its nose close to the ground 
and burrows under the creepers and dense vegetation which slip along 
its horns and back and snap down behind it, leaving no passageway 
at all. In following such a trail one is frequently compelled to work 
his way along flat on his belly, and at the best will f requently have to 
go for half an hour at a time on all fours. The timarru's senses of 
hearing and smell are exceptionally acute, and the snapping of a dry 
twig or a puff of wind in the wrong direction often make half a day 
of killing work useless. When the animal has once been alarmed one 
might as well abandon the trail, for it will often run 10 miles without 
stopping, tearing its way through the forest, and exhibiting an amount 
of brute strength utterly out of proportion to its small size. 

Before lying down to sleep the timarru usually turns about and 
faces its own trail. The hunter must creep up within 30 or 10 feet of 
his game before he can see it, and he must then shoot for the brain. 
The timarru is almost certain to charge if not instantty killed, and at 
sucn short range there is little time for a second shot. When hit 
through the lungs it will run for miles, and it will often go 75 to 100 
yards after being shot through the heart. 

It is ordinarily met with singly, although it is said to go in herds in 
the tall grass on the west coast of Mindoro. Fierce battles often occur 
between the bulls, and in spite of their inferior size they attack and 
sometimes kill the wild water buffaloes. The Datives are much afraid 
of them, and not without reason. Repeated attempts at domesticating 
them have ended in failure. When taken in snares or pitfalls they 
struggle until they kill themselves, and young calves, with horn just 
starting, when put to suck to female carabaos are said to have 
attempted to attack them and afterwards to have refused all food. 

According to the English naturalist, Mr. John Whitehead, the 
timarru forsakes the wet lowlands for the mountains during the rainy 
season. 

This curious animal presents a zoological puzzle. Its extinction by 
man would he well-nigh impossible so long as a bit of jungle remained 
on an island; yet it is not found in Luzon, which at one point is dis- 
tant hi it L0 miles from Mindoro, nor does it exist in any other island 
of the archipelago. It has been classified as Bubahis mindorensis 
Haude, but it is doubtful if this determination is correct. The Ger- 



EEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 311 

man collector, Dr. Platen, who had successfully hunted the anoa of 
Celebes, and who secured four or five specimens of the timarru in 
Mindoro, insisted that the two animals were identical. 

Elephants were at one time imported into Sulu, and, it is said, into 
Cebu also. It is said that they proved a nuisance, and were therefore 
killed. None exist in the archipelago at present. 

Domesticated rabbits occur in the islands, but there are no wild ones. 

One species of porcupine occurs, but it is confined to the Palawan- 
Calamianes group. 

The house rat, which has been introduced by man, is a common 
nuisance. There are a number of wild species of rats and mice, some 
of which occasional^ become so numerous as to seriously damage the 
sugar cane and rice fields. 

Squirrels occur in the eastern chain of islands from Luzon to Basilan 
and in the Palawan-Calamianes group. In the southern islands there 
is a tiny species the size of a mouse. Very large filing squirrels are 
found in Palawan and Mindanao. They are nocturnal in their habits. 
There are no squirrels in Cebu, Negros, Panay, Masbate, or Mindoro. 

Squirrel-shrews occur in the Palawan-Calamianes group, and true 
shrews at various points in the archipelago. 

Among carnivorous animals may be mentioned the bintorang and a 
species of otter, both found in the Palawan-Calamianes group. Also 
two species of civet cats which range throughout the group, and a 
true wild-cat of small size which has been found in Palawan, Panay, 
and Negros, and is said to exist in Cebu. 

Bats occur in great numbers, and there are very numerous species, 
a number of which are peculiar to the archipelago. There are exten- 
sive bat caves in Guimaras, Cebu, and Siquijor. The deposits in these 
caves have never been worked, but woulcl doubtless be of considerable 
commercial value. At numerous points in the archipelago there are 
immense colonies of the large fruit bats, which pass the day hanging 
head downward in their favorite trees, which they frequent in such 
numbers as to fairly blacken them. At dusk they may be seen rising 
in a great swirling column high into the air, and then setting off in 
different directions to search for food. Their skins have been some- 
what used for furs. 

The prosimidae are represented by Galeopithecus jpliilippinensis 
Wath. (the so-called flying lemur), the tarsier (Tarsius spectrum Geoff.), 
and a small lemur {Nycticelms tardigradus Fisch.). The latter animal 
occurs only in Tawi-tawi. It is known to the natives as kokam and 
to the Spaniards as el virgonzoso, on account of its curious habit of 
hiding its head when approached by man and unable to escape. 

Galeopithecus is found from Basilan to Luzon, and also in the island 
of Bohol. It has membranes like those of a flying squirrel, which not 
only extend between the legs but reach to the tip of the tail. B} r the 
aid of them it is able to make immense leaps through the air, pitching 
down sharply at first and rising again as it approaches the tree on 
which it desires to alight. It is nocturnal in its habits. Its soft fur 
is highly prized in Europe. 

So far as is at present known the tarsier, a most curious little mam- 
mal, is coufined to Basilan, Mindanao, Samar, Leyte, and Luzon. Its 
characteristics are perhaps too well known to require description. The 
natives in the Philippines insists that it feeds on charcoal, and this 
curious belief occurs among the natives of some other regions where 
it is found. 



312 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

In spite of all that has been said to the contrary, but a single species 
of monkey has as yet been discovered in the Philippine Islands. It 
is known to the natives as maching, or matsin, and its scientific name 
is Macacos philippinensis Geoff. It is of medium size, and occurs on 
every island of any importance in the group. It is very commonly 
tamed by the natives, who use it to rid their heads of objectionable 
tenants. It not infrequently inflicts considerable damage on growing 
rice and other crops. Its flesh is sometimes utilized by the natives as 
an article of food. 

A black monkey (Oynocephalus niger Desm.), of Celebes, has been 
said also to occur in Sulu and Mindanao. It is undoubtedly some- 
times brought to Sulu from Celebes, but there is no reason for believ- 
ing that it occurs wild, either in that island or in Mindanao. The 
various other species of monkey which have been assigned to the 
Philippines by different authors are myths pure and simple. 

BIRDS. 

No other group of organisms has been so thoroughly studied in the 
Philippine Islands as have the birds, which early attracted the atten- 
tion of naturalists, beginning with Sonnerat. Since his day Cuming, 
Meyer, Steere, Everett, Platen, Moseley, Bourns, Worcester, White- 
head, and others have contributed more or less extensively to our 
knowledge of the avifauna of the archipelago. The result has boon 
to raise the total number of species to more than 590, i of which at 
least 325 are peculiar to the Philippines. 

With few exceptions, these peculiar species are land birds, and the 
study of their distribution has brought out some interesting facts. 
Certain islands, or groups of islands, have been found to have char- 
acteristic forms of their own which do not spread to other islands of 
the group. Thus, the Balabac-Palawan-Calamianes islands have several 
peculiar species, and the bird fauna of this region, on the whole, 
agrees with the mammalian fauna in showing strong evidences of a 
Bornean origin. 

The deep water between the Calamianes group and Mindoro marks 
the northern extension of these Bornean forms into the Philippine 
group. None of them reach the latter island, which has 11 peculiar 
species of its own; although, as might be expected, a number of the 
characteristic forms have made their way across the few intervening 
miles of sea, aided, no doubt, by Isla Verde and other small islands. 
Many of the most important Luzon forms are absent, however, and 
these facts, together with the occurrence of the remarkable timarru 
and the absenceof most of the characteristic Luzon mammals, combine 
to give Mindoro a place by itself. 

As might be expected, the great island of Luzon, with its high 
mountains and mighty forests, its extensive open plains, its important 
fresh-water lakes and large rivers, has a very rich bird fauna, and it 
has been more carefully studied than has that of any other island in 
the archipelago. Two hundred and eighty-six species of birds have 
been recorded, of which 1 :'.<'> are peculiar to the Philippines, and 51 are 
not. known to occur outside of Luzon and tin 1 small islands immediately 
adjacent to it. 



1 In 1897 the number recorded was Some addition.- have since been made. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 313 

A close relationship has been shown to exist between the eastern 
islands from Luzon to Basilan. The greatest differences occur between 
Luzon, on the one hand, and Samar-Leyte and Panaon on the other. 
The latter group of islands form a well-defined zoological area char- 
acterized by the presence of 22 peculiar species; and while no less than 
63 Luzon forms have not as yet been found in Samar, we find practical 
agreement between the families occurring throughout the eastern chain 
of islands, while many important and highly characteristic genera not 
represented in the central Philippines range from Basilan or Mindanao 
to Luzon, often with different representative species in the different 
zoological areas into which the islands in question must be divided. 

Mindanao is, next to Luzon, the largest island in the Philippines, 
and, like the latter island, has a diversified surface, with high mountains, 
extensive forests, and open plains. Much doubtless remains to be 
done before the study of the birds of this island will have been com- 
pleted, and its highland avifauna is as yet quite unknown. Two 
hundred and seven species of birds have thus far been found on the 
island. 

The small island of Basilan probably once formed an extension of 
the peninsula, which at present ends at Zamboanga. There are 17 
species of birds peculiar to Mindanao and Basilan, while 13 more occur 
in these islands and range to the northward, but do not extend into 
the Sulu-Tawitawi group. Apparently, however, the separation 
between Mindanao and Basilan has endured for a considerable time, 
as 5 peculiar species have been developed in the latter island and 8 in 
the former, while a number of species closely allied to or identical 
with Samar-Leyte forms occur in Mindanao which are absent in 
Basilan, apparently indicating a relatively recent connection between 
the former islands and those lying to the northward. With but a 
single exception every one of the peculiar Samar-Leyte species is 
known to have a close ally of the same genus in Mindanao. 

It is only within a few years that the birds and mammals of the 
Sulu-Tawitawi group have been investigated. The result has been 
to show conclusively that these islands belong to the Philippines 
zoologically as well as politically. Bornean forms are conspicuous by 
their absence, the mammals of that island being represented only by a 
lemur, and the birds by a few unimportant forms; while 53 charac- 
teristic Philippine species have been accorded from Sulu and 51 from 
Tawitawi. This group has 12 well-marked peculiar species of its own, 
and many of the characteristic Mindanao-Basilan forms are lacking, so 
that it forms a well-marked area by itself. 

It only remains to discuss the central islands of the archipelago. 
Panay, Guimaras, Negros, and Masbate have been shown to constitute 
another sharply defined area characterized not only by the occurrence 
of 30 peculiar species of birds, but by the absence of important genera 
and even whole families which are represented in the eastern chain of 
islands. 

As previously stated, they also lack most of the mammals character- 
istic of the region last referred to. They have no squirrels, and Gale- 
opithicecus tarsius and pteromys do not occur. The wild-cat of the 
central Philippines is not known to occur in the eastern islands, and a 
very well marked species of deer is peculiar to the former group. 

Curiously enough, the island of Cebu stands by itself, although the 
greatest width of the channel separating it from Negros is hardly more 



314 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

than 20 miles, while at one point it narrows to 4. It is very deep, 
however, and has doubtless long existed. As a result, Cebu pos- 
sesses no less than nine striking species of birds not known to exist 
elsewhere in the world, and lacks not only important genera, but even 
whole families, which are represented in the Panay-Negros-Masbate 
group. 

The zoological position of Bohol has never been satisfactorily deter- 
mined, as naturalists who have attempted to work there have not suc- 
ceeded in finding good forest land. Such facts as have been ascertained 
indicate that this island should be grouped with Samar and Leyte, a 
fact rendered the more probable by the line of shallow soundings 
which connects it with the latter island. 

Interesting results have been obtained from the study of the birds 
of small islands like Siquijor, Tablas, Romblon, and Sibuyan, but they 
can not well be here discussed. 

Should it be thought that the facts as regards the geographical dis- 
tribution of birds and mammals within the Philippine group are of 
small importance, it may be replied that they throw important light 
on the past geological history of the group. 

The land birds are not driven from north to south, and from south 
to north again by changing seasons, as happens in our own country, 
and a comparatively small expanse of salt water forms a barrier which 
many of them can not or will not cross, while it effectually checks the 
migration of many of the mammals. The degree of difference between 
the birds and mammals of the natural zoological areas into which the 
islands of the Philippine Archipelago fall may therefore be taken as a 
fair index of the duration and completeness of the separation which 
has existed between them. 

Much still remains to be done in the study of the birds and mam- 
mals of the archipelago. The connection with Formosa on the north 
has never been worked out, while that with Celebes on the south has 
been studied incompletely. The highlands of many of the larger 
islands of the group are still nearly or quite unexplored, and many of 
the smaller islands are as yet wholly unknown. It is probably safe to 
say that nowhere else in the world does nature offer a more favorable 
opportunity for the study of the vexed question as to the relationship 
between environment and species formation in the ease of the higher 
animal. 

The islands abound in beautiful birds, as well as in species which are 
interesting on account of their peculiar habits, while a number of forms 
are in one way and another of considerable importance to man. Only 
a 1V\\ of these can here be mentioned. It should be said in passing 
thai the statements which have appeared to the effect that birds of 
paradise, humming birds, and the lyre bird, occur in the Philippines 
are utterly without foundation. Instead of humming birds we have 
sun birds, conspicuous for their beautiful colors, and feeding from 
(lowers, as do the hummers, but quite without their remarkable powers 
of flight. 

Among the most remarkable birds of the group are the mound build- 
ers (Megapodvus cvmingi Dillwyn), known to the natives as tabon. 
These singular birds burrow into the sand along the sea beach, or the 
soft earth of the forest, and deposit their eggs, which are very large 
and out of all proportion to the size of the birds, ^ or 3 feet below the 
surface of the ground. The eggs are \lwy rich in yolk, and the little 



KEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 315 

birds are highly developed when they hatch. They dig their way to 
the surface, take to the brush, and shift for themselves from the day 
of their birth. A number of pairs often frequent the same spot, to 
which they constantly return. Each time an egg is deposited the 
parent birds scratch dirt over the place, and a mound of steadily 
increasing size is thus formed, which sometimes attains to a diameter 
of 12 or 15 feet and a height of 4 or 5. The eggs of the tabon are 
highly prized by the natives as an article of food, and they sometimes 
impose on the unfortunate bird by digging away the top of a mound, 
covering the base with boards, and then heaping soft earth on them 
again so that after several ineffectual attempts to burrow to the bottom 
the birds lay their eggs on the boards, thus saving labor for those who 
wish to rob them. 

The jungle fowl {Gallus gallus Linn.) abounds throughout the archi- 
pelago. This fowl is presumably the ancestor of our domestic breeds, 
and the cocks and hens somewhat closely resemble red leghorns. They 
are not infrequently caught and domesticated, and the cocks are even 
trained to fight. They cross freely with the domestic fowls of the 
Philippines. The cocks are extremely pugnacious, and the natives 
obtain them in considerable numbers by the use of individuals that 
have been tamed as decoys. The tame cock is staked out in the 
brush, and its owner secretes himself. The. crow of the decoy bird is 
promptly answered by that of the lord of the territory thus invaded, 
who promptly appears to punish him for his audacity, and is thereupon 
laid low by the concealed hunter. 

This method of procedure is often varied by surrounding the decoy 
bird with a circle of snares, so that when his wild rival appears to find 
him he becomes entangled and can not escape. 

There are no less than 35 species of pigeons and doves known to 
inhabit the Philippines; many of them are most beautifully colored, 
and the flesh of all of them is edible. Several of the species are of very 
large size. This is notably the case with the six representatives of the 
genus Carpophaga, which are collectively known to the natives as 
balud. The splendid Nicobar pigeon (Caloenas nicobraica Linn.) is 
especially worthy of mention on account of its beautiful changeable 
hues, which vary from deep green to fiery copper red. There are 15 
species of rails, coots, and gallinules. The natives often eat their flesh 
and sometimes their eggs as well. Gulls and terns are poorly repre- 
sented. 

Snipe, plover, turnstones, and shore birds in general are very abun- 
dant along the coast during the cold season in Asia, but the majority 
of the species migrate northward with the oncoming of the hot season. 
The Asiatic snipe makes splendid shooting in November, December, 
and January, and the beautiful painted snipe is resident in the islands 
throughout the year. 

The herons and bitterns are represented by 15 species of the most 
varied forms, size, and color. There is but one stork, and it is com- 
paratively rare. 

Five species of ducks are recorded from the islands. One of these, 
a fine mallard, is peculiar to the Philippines, and this species, as well 
as Dendrocycna arcuata (Cuv.) often affords fine shooting. The latter 
species breeds abundantly, and its eggs are often used by the natives 
for food. The birds of prey number no less than 45 species, of which 
22 are peculiar to the Philippines. In size they vary from a tiny falcon 



316 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

{Micro hierax), the size of a sparrow, up to the immense monkey - 
catching harpy eagle {Pithecophaga jefferyi, Grant), which is so strong 
and active that it seizes monkeys as they leap from tree to tree. It is 
one of the most difficult of birds to kill, and thus far but two speci- 
mens of it have been secured. The first was obtained by the Menage 
expedition near Catbaloban, Samar, in 1892. The second was secured 
by the English naturalist, Mr. John Whitehead, several years later. 

Another family well represented is the kingfishers. Of these there 
are 21 species, all but six of which are confined to the Philippines. 
Many of these are most beautifully colored, and not a few of them feed 
on insects, larvae, etc., in the forests, never "fishing" at all. 

There are 12 species of hornbills, not one of which occurs outside of 
the Philippines. These birds have most singular breeding habits, the 
males wall up the females in hollow trees when the latter are ready to 
attend to their maternal duties, by filling up the openings through 
which they enter with clay, leaving only small holes through which 
they can pass in food to their imprisoned wives. The hornbills are 
fruit eaters, and their flesh is excellent. The large species of the 

fenus Hydrocorax frequent very high trees, but can readily be called 
own within range if one hides one's self and imitates harsh notes. 

There are a variety of frogmouths, bee birds, night hawks, and 
swifts. One of the latter (Collocalia troglodytes, Gray) is especially 
interesting, since it constructs the edible nests so highly prized by the 
Chinese for food. These nests, which are composed of a gelatinous 
secretion from salivary glands in the mouths of the birds, are usually 
placed in the hollow of steep cliffs or in limestone caves. When quite 
fresh and clean they sometimes bring more than their weight in gold. 
The best nests are obtained on the precipitous sides of the Penon de 
Coron, between Culion and Busuanga, where the natives gather them 
at no little personal risk. Good nests are to be had in Guimaras, 
Siquijor, and at other points. When persistently robbed the birds 
help out their stock of secretion by using bits of moss, grass, etc., 
and it is perhaps this fact which has given rise to the more or less 
widespread belief that their nests are made of "sea moss." 

Among the remaining forms there may be mentioned 21 species of 
cuckoos, 1 cockatoo, 19 parrots and paroquets, 19 woodpeckers, bar- 
bets, broadbills, starlings, orioles, weaver finches, larks, nuthatches, 
24 species of beautifully colored sun birds, and 23 of flower peckers, 
titmice, shrikes and swallow shrikes, tailor birds, thrushes, fruit 
thrushes, fairy bluebirds, firebirds, 42 flycatchers, 4 swallows, and 5 
species of most beautifully colored pittas, or ant thrushes, as well as 
a Large Dumber of birds belonging to the Timeliidse, and several other 
families for which English names can not readily be supplied. 

The breeding habits of the tailor bird are particularly worthy of 
note. There are nine species of the genus Orthotomus in the Philip- 
pines. So far as their breeding habits are known, they all stitch 
together green leaves by piercing their edges with their Long, slender 
beaks and passing thread obtained from spider webs, cocoons, or other 
sources back and forth through the holes thus made. As the leaves 
remain attached to the branches and are in no wise injured by this 
process, the} form a green sack, within which the nest is so perfectly 
concealed that it is almost impossible to discover it. Although the 
birds are excessively common, their nests are extremely diflicult to 
obtain. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 317 

REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS. 

The reptiles and batrachians of the Philippine Islands have been 
but little studied; nevertheless a large number of forms is known, of 
which we shall mention only a few of the more important. 

The largest snake in the archipelago is the python, known to the 
natives as saua. It is not uncommon to see immature specimens offered 
for sale in the larger towns, where they are put in storehouses and 
over the ceilings of rooms in dwelling houses in order that they may 
keep down the pest of rats. As they grow larger they prey upon 
chickens and pigs, and individual specimens which have developed a 
taste in this direction often cause much annoyance in the native villages. 

In the forests of the archipelago they sometimes attain to enormous 
size. These very large specimens live on wild hogs, monkeys, and 
deer. They often have fixed, abiding places, called by the natives their 
"houses," in the shape of caves in the limestone rocks or hollows in 
large trees, to which they return after gorging themselves with food, 
and where they apparently spend the greater part of their time. 

The most extravagant tales are told by the natives as to their size, 
and it is not uncommon to hear of specimens "50 feet long, with eyes 
like saucers and heads as big as demijohns." Two specimens were 
obtained by the Menage Scientific Expedition in 1892, one of which 
measured 22 feet 8 inches in length, the other 22 feet 6 inches. Each 
of these specimens had a maximum circumference of 21 inches with 
the stomach entirely empty. Facilities for weighing them were not 
at hand, but the weight was estimated at about 375 pounds each. 

Large pythons are particularly numerous in the Caiamianes Islands, 
Basilan, Mindanao, and, it is said, also in Bohol. Their abundance in 
any given locality seems to be largely a matter of food supply. 

They sometimes occasion loss to cattle owners by killing their young 
animals, and they have been known to attack and kill human beings. 

The specimens kept in and about the houses become tame and are 
entirely harmless. 

Among the nonvenomous serpents there is a small group of some 
ten species, representing four genera, which are exclusively confined 
to the Philippines. 

There are numerous venomous serpents in the Philippines. The 
annual mortality from snake bites is said to be great in the little 
island of Lubang to the northwest of Mindoro, but is certainly not seri- 
ous in any other island of the group, although tnere are cobras in the 
eastern chain of islands and in the Caiamianes group. The genera 
Elaps, Naja, and Erigonocephalus are also represented. 

The poison of some of the venomous species is extremely active, 
and, if fairly introduced into the circulation, ends in death, so that 
only prompt and radical measures will save life after one has been 
bitten. 

The natives are firm believers in the efficacy of " the snake stone," 
of which the following curious account has been given by Father Del- 
gado, when speaking of the snake known to Tagalogs as alupon, and 
to the Visayans as aguason. He says: 

It is found almost in the sea, as well as in the plains, the towns, and even houses, 
where it goes to seek rats and other small animals for food. Its poison is very active 
and deadly if one does not have recourse promptly to some one of the remedies with 
which Divine Providence has enriched this country. One may readily cure himself 



318 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

with the snake stone, which is notning more nor less than a piece of deer horn, or 
buffalo horn, burned and broken up to resemble bits of rock. Both kinds applied 
to the bite have the same effect, while a portion of them scraped and mixed with 
cold water is given to drink. Also the stone which I myself discovered in the Visa van 
Islands is a medicine and an admirable antidote. I called it St. Xavier's stone on 
account of having discovered it in the town of San Javier de Palompon, when I was 
curate there. Scraped and reduced to a powder it is given as a drink in water, and 
it is also applied to the wounded part, mixed with lemon juice, and it both quiets 
the pain and counteracts the effect of the poison. 

The Dahun-palay (rice-leaf snake) is universally dreaded by the 
natives. Under this name they include a number of distinct species 
of green snakes, most of which are absolutely harmless, although one 
at least is very deadly. The large poison glands give its head the 
typical arrow shape so widespread among the venomous species, while 
its neck is very slender, and its body short, thick, and strong. Why 
this species should be confounded with the perfectly innocuous green 
whip snakes, to which the same name is applied by the natives, does 
not appear, yet in many localities they seem to fear the latter as much 
as the former. 

Two species of geckos are common in the houses. One is very small, 
and may be seen at any time running up the walls or back down upon 
the ceiling. It feeds actively on mosquitoes, house Hies, and other 
insect pests, works noiselessly, and may be regarded as an almost 
unmitigated blessing. The other species has a large, thick body, some- 
times attaining a length of 8 inches or more. It is comparatively slug- 
gish in its movements, and sometimes loses its footing when running 
back down on the ceiling and falls. It has a loud call, which it is fond of 
giving, and it often interferes more or less seriously with one's slumber. 
Its call becomes particularly loud and annoying when emitted, as it often 
is, from within a large hollow bamboo of the roof into which the animal 
has crawled. Although ordinarily harmless enough, these large geckos 
bite viciously at anything put near them when they can not readily 
escape, and are quite capable of inflicting disagreeable wounds. The 
natives sometimes take advantage of their pugnacious disposition and 
set them to fighting with each other or with rats. 

There is an almost endless variety of lizards. Large iguanas are 
very abundant in many localities. They sometimes attain a length of 
more than 5 feet, and are able to swallow fair-sized fowls whole. They 
are of ten to be seen in great numbers lying astride of the limbs of 
trees and bushes along the river banks, where they sun themselves and 
sleep. When disturbed they drop into the water, usually disappearing 
and swimming away beneath the surface, but sometimes, when greatly 
frightened, swimming so actively that they seem literally to run on 
the top of the water, keeping almost the entire body out of the water. 
Their eggs are considered a great delicacy by the nativesand are really 
very good, while the tlesh of one species, variously known as ibid, 

ibit, and pelubid, Is very highly esteemed. 

Flying lizards of several species are very common in t ho forests. 
They are often protectively colored, and are well nigh invisible so long 
as they remain quiet on the gray trunks of trees. They become sud- 
denly conspicuous as they spread their Hying membranes, which are 
often brightly colored, and sail from tree to tree, only to disappear 
again almost miraculously when they alight. 

Crocodiles are extremely abundant in many of the streams and fresh- 
water lakes, and are sometimes met with in the sea along the coast. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 319 

They frequently attain very large size. The Jesuit priests at Manila 
are authority for the statement that "there are specimens which 
measure some 10 meters," but this seems rather incredible. They 
certainly do sometimes measure as much as 18 feet in length. In certain 
parts of the archipelago they occasion no little loss of life, while in other 
regions the natives may be seen bathing with apparent impunity in 
streams where they are known to abound. The natives explain this 
by saying that the taste for human flesh is acquired, and that having 
once tasted it by accident a crocodile is content with nothing else and 
becomes a man-eater. 

Land turtles are common, but of small size and of no commercial 
importance. Sea turtles have the largest dimensions, are not infre- 
quently captured by the fishermen in their weirs, and their flesh is 
highly appreciated as an article of food. The tortoise producing the 
beautiful shell of commerce is abundant, and a considerable business 
is done in the shell. 

Frogs occur in great variety. One small species appears in immense 
numbers with the oncoming of the rainy season, and even on some of 
the streets of Manila the noise of its outcry sometimes almost over- 
powers othei sound. In the forests there is a tree frog with enor- 
mously developed membranes between its toes, which seem to aid in 
supporting it in its long leaps. Toads occur, but are less common than 
frogs and there are fewer species. 

FISHES. 

Marine fishes constitute one of the chief sources of food supply in 
the Philippines, while some of the fresh-water species also are largely 
depended on by the natives. The number of species of fish in the 
waters of the archipelago is doubtless much larger than that of any 
other group of vertebrates represented in the islands, yet practically 
no scientific work has been done on them. 

The method most extensively used for the taking of fish is the con- 
struction of pens or "corrals," which are to be seen in large numbers 
along the coasts wherever the water is shallow and the necessary food 
supply present. The sides of these pens are constructed of slender 
pieces of split bamboo, bound together with rattan in such a way that 
long pieces can readily be rolled up and transported from place to 
place. When it is desired to construct a "corral" at sliij given point, 
stakes are driven into the sea bottom, and the siding is then unrolled 
and fastened to them. These corrals are sometimes so placed that they 
surround the favorite feeding ground and are immersed at high water. 
The fish then come in over the top at high tide, and the ebb leaves 
them imprisoned. 

More commonly, however, the walls project above the surface of 
the sea at all times. A long line of the close bamboo fence leads from 
near the shore to the corral, which has narrow openings at the point 
where this fence joins it. The fish follow down the line, enter the 
corral, and are too stupid to find their way out of the openings through 
which they came before the fall of the tide renders it impossible for 
them to reach it. 

Frequently a narrow lane leads from the main part of the corral out 
to comparatively deep water, where it ends in a circular pound. The 
opening from the lane into the pound is surrounded by pointed bam- 



320 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

boos, directed into the latter, so that when the fish have once entered it 
they can not escape. Their tendenc}^ to run toward deep water as the 
tide falls results in the imprisonment of the whole catch here, and they 
are then either speared or dipped out with a scoop net. 

Very large catches are not infrequently made. The fish are sold 
fresh so far as practicable, but any that remain unsold are split and 
sun dried. In this form they find a ready market. 

Another method in vogue at certain points, notably at Malabon, near 
Manila, is the suspending of very large dip nets from masts erected on 
boats or bamboo rafts by means of a contrivance not unlike the old- 
fashioned well-sweep, so that they can be quickly lowered and raised. 

Seining is practiced to some extent, but almost invariably in the 
shallow waters along the coast. The nets, which are of comparatively 
small dimensions, are run out from native boats and are then hauled 
in toward the beach. 

In the Tanon channel, and at various other points in the archipelago 
where conditions are suitable, deep-water traps are used, which are 
sometimes sunk in as much as 200 fathoms of water. They usually 
take the form of loosely woven wicker or bamboo baskets 6 by 4 by 2 
feet. At one end there is an opening leading inward, protected by the 
usual pointed bamboos. The trap is baited with meat, and the fish 
having once entered can not readily escape. The line by which these 
traps are raised and lowered is simply a series of long pieces of split 
rattan. A load of stones is necessary to sink them, and these are often 
so adjusted that a jerk on the line will loosen them before the trap is 
hauled up. The position of each trap is marked by a buoy at the end 
of its line, and this method can be used in a given locality only at the 
season when the sea is comparatively quiet; otherwise it would often 
be impossible to tend the trap, while the buoys would carry away, 
resulting in their loss. Particularly choice fish are taken by this 
method. 

In the very shallow waters along the beaches immense schools of 
small fishes are^o be met with at certain seasons as they run in over 
the shoals in order to escape the attacks of the larger species or of full- 
grown individuals of their own kind. The smallest of them, merely 
salted without drying or other treatment, are considered a great 
delicacy with the natives, who have several ingenious methods for their 
capture. 

One of the commonest is the use of a circular casting net some 10 
or 12 feet in diameter, with leaden sinkers around the edge and a cord 
attached to the center. It is sometimes thrown from a boat, but more 
frequently the operator wades in the shoal water. Small stones or 
hits of bait are thrown in to attract the fish, and when a school has 
gathered the net. which has been properly coiled up. is given a rotary 
motion and thrown into the air over them. The centrifugal force of 
the heavy leaden sinkers causes it to spread out to its full extent before 

it falls into the water, where it quickly sinks to the bottom, imprison- 
ing anything that happens to he under it. The operator then takes 
!)<>ld 01 the cord attached to the center, which is. of course, provided 
with a float, and pulls on it. the sinkers naturally all dragging in as 
the net is raised and effectually imprisoning any fish that may have 

been cauglil under il. 

Another method much in vogue is the use of a large scoop net 
attached to two long bamboos, the ends of which are furnished with 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 321 

pieces of wood, so fashioned as to run easily along a smooth, sandy 
bottom. The operator wades out as far as possible, sinks his net, and 
pushes it rapidly toward the shore, raising it when he has a sufficient 
catch. 

Spearing is sometimes resorted to at night in the waters of sheltered 
bays and coves. Torches of resin or of dried palm leaves are employed 
to attract the fish. 

Finally, hook and line are sometimes resorted to in the waters along 
the coast, but this method is comparatively unimportant. 

Weirs similar in general plan to those used for sea fishing are con- 
structed in the fresh-water lakes, and especially in the rivers, when 
the fish are running. Gill nets are sometimes stretched entirely across 
small streams from platforms erected for the purpose, and are raised 
by pulling simultaneously on both ends. Dip nets are also consid- 
erably used, and hook and line are brought into play more frequently 
in fresh than in salt water. 

A species of mud fish, known to the natives throughout the islands 
as dalag, is found throughout the rice fields during the rainy season, 
and at this time the natives may frequently be seen wading in the 
fields, provided with basket-like traps, with sharply pointed bamboos 
surrounding the open end, which they continually thrust down into 
the water, on the chance of imprisoning the unfortunate dalag under 
them. The fish are so abundant that they often succeed in making 
considerable catches in this way. The natives insist that the dalag 
buries itself in the mud before the oncoming of the dry season, but 
as it is quite capable of working its way through the shallowest 
water, or even over bare ground where the grass is damp, it is more 
reasonable to suppose that it finds its way into the paddy fields from 
the streams which are used to irrigate them, and departs again before 
they dry up. 

Owners of fish corrals, seines, etc. , often make a steady income, and 
in return for the privileges which they enjoy are compelled to pay a 
tax for the benefit of the town to which they belong. 

It is needless to say that no measures looking to the propagation or 
preservation of valuable food fishes have been put in operation in the 
Philippines. At Malabon, however, the natives have hit upon the 
plan of capturing small fishes, which grow rapidly, and feeding them 
in artificial ponds until they reach large size. 

Among the marine forms there are a number of poisonous species, 
the eating of which sometimes occasions severe illness, and even death. 

Those who may in future undertake a systematic study of the fish 
of the Philippine Archipelago will do well to investigate a method 
sometimes employed for taking them by the Tagbanuas of the island 
of Palawan. 

They make use of a mixture of several vegetable substances with 
earth and wood ashes, which is known as macasla, from the name of 
its most important ingredient. The macasla itself is the fruit of a low 
bush. It is pounded up together with a tuber known as carote, leaves 
and fruit of the cayenne pepper, and two other vegetable substances 
together with ashes and earth. The mixture is placed in a wooden 
trough, covered with banana leaves, and allowed to ferment over night. 
It is then placed in wicker baskets, and men, women, and children pro- 
vided with these wade out over the shoals along the shore at ebb tide 
and await the flow. When this sets in they form a long line, lower 

p o— vol 3—01 32 



322 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

their baskets into the water, and jerk them about by the thongs until 
the macasla has been washed out. They then gradually move in toward 
the shore. 

The macasla soon begins to exert a marked influence on the fishes, 
which at first swim about actively, coming to the surface or leaping 
out of the water. After a little they float helplessly or sink to the 
bottom, where they lie on their sides. The small ones may then be 
picked up and thrown into baskets. The larger ones should be dis- 
abled by a blow from a knife or a club, as they are apt to dart off for 
a short distance when touched, only to lose their equilibrium and 
sink to the bottom again. The effect of the poison, which seems to 
act through the gills, eventually works off, and onry the very small- 
est of the fishes die from it. This method would be invaluable to the 
collector, as it would enable him to catch a species which will not take 
bate, and which, from the nature of the locations which they frequent, 
can not well be netted. 

The unsatisfactory state of our knowledge renders it difficult to say 
much as to the species which are of especial importance. The follow- 
ing statement on the subject has been furnished the commission by the 
fathers of the Jesuit mission at Manila. 

PISCES. 

This lowest class of vertebrates is undoubtedly that which presents 
the largest number of species (in the Philippines), but is at the same 
time least known. We shall consider the principal species of the 
Selachii and Teleosteii under their five suborders, the Lophobranchii, 
Plectognathi, Fisostomi, Anacantidse, and Acantopteri. 

Selachii. — Under this order we find the sharks, or Pating (Char- 
charms verus Cuv.), which abound in the marine waters of the archi- 
pelago. The Indians engage in the dangerous task of capturing such 
voracious animals on account of the profit which they derive from the 
sale of their fins and tails, which constitute a gelatinous food, highly 
prized by the Chinese, who pay a large price for it. The genus Pristis 
is represented in Philippine waters % the sawfish (Pristis antiattorum 
Lath.). Pertaining to the same water are the plow fish, or sut-sut 
(Rhynchohatios amyclostomm), dogfish, rays, and hammer fish (Sphi- 
sura sigona). 

Teleosteii. — There are a great number of noteworthy species of the 
genera Triancan thres and Ballistes, belonging to the same suborder 
Plectognathi. They have the body compressed and the mandibles 
provided with eight teeth placed in one single rank on each, and cov- 
ered by true lips. Their flesh, little esteemed, is even considered harm- 
ful at certain times of the .year. They assemble in large schools, and 
produce beautiful effects, the reflections of the blue bodies shining 
like precious stones. The representatives of the genus Ostracion, 
trunkfish, do not have the body covered by scales, but with regular 
bony plates. 

The most noteworthy species are Ostracion gMoSMlS L., 0, cubicus 
( ninth. , and 0. cornutus L. There are forms with triangular bodies 
with or without spines; others have the bodies quadrangular, covered 
with spines. Species of the genus Tedrodon (porcupine fish) abound in 
these waters. 

Lophobranchii, — Representing this suborder we find the sea needle 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 323 

(Lyngnathus conspicillatus Jem.), so called from having the body very 
slender and long and of almost uniform diameter throughout; also the 
sea horse (Hippocampus guttulatus Cub.). 

Fisostomi. — This suborder is represented in these waters by various 
species of Murenidse, Clypeidse, and Siluridse. The genera Mursua, 
Ophychtys, Muronesare, and Anguila are especially worthy of mention. 
The natives spend much time in fishing for eels, which are notable for 
their large size. 

Among the Clypeidse are found sardines, such as the Bangos ( Ohanos 
salmoneus Forik), the Buan buan (Megalops ciprinoides Bronnss.), and 
the shad (C. alosa L.). 

Finally, the Silluridse or Bagres are represented by the genera 
Clarise (Alito), Plotosus, and Rita, which are for the most part river 
or fresh- water fish. They have the skin bare or covered with large 
bony plates, but never possess true scales. There is a peculiar species 
of the genus Rita in the Philippines (Rita manilensis C. V.). The 
genus Danguila belongs to the same natural group as the tench and 
the barbels. 

Anacanthidw. — Of this suborder there are found the Gabidse and 
Pleuronecthidae. Among the former one of the most notable species 
is called Bregmaceros macclellandi Thorns, characteristic of Philippine 
waters and very similar to the Bacalao, the cod, and other gadadse with 
light meat of good savor. To the genus Pleuronectes belong the tur- 
bots and soles. The latter, so highly esteemed on account of their 
delicious flesh, are obtained in large quantities in these waters. The 
most important species are Solea ovata Richard, and Pseudorhombus 
russelii Pleck. 

Acanthopteri. — Belonging to this suborder there are found in the 
Philippines the Labredse, Percidse, Mullidse, Esparidse, Triglidae, and 
Escombridse. Among the Labredse are Pseudoscarm eruginosus C. B. , 
Julis lunaris L. , Pseudojulis girandi Fleeck. , Novacula pentadactila 
L. , and others. There are various fish of the genus Ophicephelus, 
called by the natives dalag. Their flesh is insipid, but light and easy 
to digest. They constitute an important article of food with the 
Indians. They abound in rivers, lakes, and pools, and during the 
rainy season are found even in the rice fields. The species best known 
is Ophacephelus striatus B. The one called Martinico (Anabas scan- 
denas C. V.) also pertains to this group. 

The Percidse are quite numerous, and are represented by the Lan- 
garay of the Pasig River (Ambassis urotenia Bleeck.), the Serrano 
(Mesoprion annularis C. V.), the Serrato (Serranus altivelis C. V.), 
the Lapolapo of Cebu (Serranus oceanicus Forsk.), and the Bango 
ongoc (Mesoprion bohar Forsk.). 

Among the Mullidse the more important ones are the Saramollete 
(Midlaides fiavomeatus Lac, Upeneces trifoseratus Lac.) and others, 
all of exquisite taste and beautiful colors. 

The Esparidse, or gildings, so highly estimated on account of their 
delicious flesh, are represented in the Philippines b}^ the genera Leth- 
rinus, Gems, Pimelepturas, and Chrisophois. 

Among the Tringlidse may be mentioned the flying fish (Ptervis vol- 
itans L.), and the sea hog (Scorpona polyprion Bleeck.). 

The most important Escombridse in these waters are the horse mack- 
eral of the country (Esconder micro lepitodos Rupp.) the plataco (Pla- 
tace teira Forsk.), the Vadigo, or Talaug-talaug (Lichia glauca L.), 
and the Caranga (Oarance rotleri BL). 



324 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Further among the Eraquinidse are found Percis cylindrica Bl. and 
Sillago sihama Forsk. The latter is one of the best food fishes of 
these waters. 

Among the mugilidae is the Talilong or mullet {Mugil swidmiensis 
Bleeck.). 

Among the Scienidse the conger (Oorvina milis C. V.) and the ala- 
caac (Umbrina russelii C. V.) are worthy of mention. 

Of the Quetodontidse the bream (Chotodon occellattts Blec.) and the 
quitong (Scatophagies ornatus C. V.) may be mentioned. 

Finally the gobidse are represented by the gobido of Manila and 
Angat (Gebius giuris Ham. Busch.). 

MOLLUSKS. 

The Philippines are famous for the wonderful variety and abun- 
dance of their " land shells," which are, with few exceptions, formed by 
snails. They are of the most varied form, size, and color, and many 
of them are extremely beautiful. Not a few of them are protectively 
colored, and the nature of their shells is such that when the tree trunks 
that they frequent darken with the wet the} r darken at the same time. 
Many of the species are extremely local in their distribution, and the 
study of the land mollusca of the archipelago is of absorbing interest 
to the conchologist. So far as we at present know, none of the species 
are of great practical importance to man, although some of them are 
occasionally eaten by the natives. The fresh-water and marine forms 
are very numerous and many of them are exquisitely beautiful. For 
the most part they are like the land species, of interest and impor- 
tance chiefly to the conchologist, but there are some exceptions to this 
statement. 

There are a number of species of edible oysters, clams, etc. , which 
are used by the natives, and to some extent by Europeans also, as food. 
Many of them are very palatable, although none of them compare with 
the oysters obtainable in the United States. 

The shells of one species (Placuna placenta L.) split into thin, flat 
plates, and cut into squares some 2 inches on a side, are almost univer- 
sally used in place of window glass. They are fitted into sliding wooden 
frames, and when in place serve to modify the glare of the tropical 
sun, producing much the effect of ground glass. 

The shells of the enormous giant clams of the genus Tridacna some- 
times attain a Length of 5 or 6 feet, and weigh hundreds of pounds. 
The valves are considerably used for baptismal fonts, etc., and the 
Datives sometimes burn them to make lime. Divers are afraid of them. 
and with reason, for they close with a grip like a vise, and were one of 
(hem to catch a man's foot he would certainly be drowned. 

True pearl oysters are found in the southern waters of tin 4 archi- 
pelago along the coasts of Mindanao and Palawan, and in the Sulu 
A rcmpelago. They are especially fine and abundant in the Latter region, 
and very valuable pearls are frequently obtained there. There are 
probably no more expert divers in the world than the Moros, who train 
themselves to remain under water two minutes or even longer. The 
Sulu pear] fisheries are controlled by the Sultan, who rents the privi- 
lege of exploiting them, and to whom all pearls above a certain size 
are held to belong. At present a Chinaman has the monopoly of the 
fisheries near Sulu itself, and is using half a dozen small sailing craft 
provided with complete divers' outfits. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 325 

The shells bring a good price, and there is a ready market for them. 
At present they are nearly all shipped to Singapore. 

The wonderful chambered nautilus, or, as it is more commonly 
called, the pearly nautilus, is so common that its shells are much used 
by the natives for drinking cups. In the Tanon Channel it may readily 
be taken alive in the deep-sea fish traps previously described. A dozen 
or fifteen specimens are sometimes taken in a single trap in the course 
of a day. Very fine specimens of the delicate paper nautilus are occa- 
sionally obtained. 

The shells of certain of the marine mollusks serve a variety of pur- 
poses apart from that of making lime. Some of them with hard and 
serrated edges are used in harvesting rice for cutting the straw. From 
the great opercula of others bracelets and other ornaments are carved. 
Some of the more beautiful species are utilized in other ways for the 
formation of ornaments. The cowries, formerly used in lieu of money 
in certain countries, have ceased to possess any commercial value. 
The taclabo (tridacna) shells are so hard that the Moros sometimes 
pound them up and ram the pieces into their rude cannon, thereby 
providing themselves with projectiles which are very effective at short 
range. 

The land mollusks of the Philippines have already been quite thor- 
oughly classified. Much still remains to be done with the marine 
species, which will doubtless, however, present fewer new and peculiar 
forms than have been found on land. 

ARTHROPODA. 

The arthropoda, or "animals with jointed feet," are represented in 
the Philippines by an enormous number of species, and have been as 
yet very little studied. Shrimps, crabs, and lobsters abound in the 
waters of the archipelago, and form an important part of the food 
supply of natives living along the coast or on the banks of fresh-water 
streams. 

Spiders are found varying in size from tiny, almost microscopic 
creatures to great hairy specimens the size of our tarantulas, which 
are capable of inflicting a painful injury with their bite. There are 
several species of scorpions, some of which are very large and sting 
severely. 

The number of species of insects is so large that it would be folly to 
hazard a guess at it. House flies are abundant, and in some places 
become a great nuisance. They were often found in countless myriads 
about the trenches from which the insurgent troops were driven, and 
must have been a prolific means for the spread of disease. 

Mosquitoes are sufficiently numerous in the lowlands, so that nets 
are necessary for protection at night. In view of the part which they 
are believed to play in the spread of malarial diseases a careful study 
of the Philippine species is desirable. 

Beetles are found in endless variety, as are butterflies and moths. 

There are three species of honey -making bees. One of these is of 
very large size, and its combs are built pendent from the branches of 
trees. The other two species store their honey in hollows. One of 
them is stingless. Honey is an important article of food, and wax an 
article of commerce among the wild tribes. 

Wasps of various species are abundant, and some of them sting most 
viciously. 



326 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

The number of species of ants is very large, and they occur in count- 
less millions. Doubtless the most important is the termite, or white 
ant, which inflicts great damage on wooden buildings, often causing 
very serious loss. A tiny red species frequently invests dwelling houses 
and occasions great annoyance by swarming over the food, which can 
be protected from it only with the greatest difficulty. A much larger 
brown species has the same objectionable habit. Among the woodland 
forms there are many which bite or sting viciously, and some which 
do both. It is not uncommon to see columns of ants an inch or more 
in width extending through the woods for many rods and looking 
much as would a black or brown rope if dragged slowly along. An 
examination of one of these columns reveals the presence of several 
different kinds of individuals, each evidently assigned to a definite 
duty, and the column moves on with all the precision of a thoroughly- 
drilled army. One who is so unfortunate as to inadvertently put his 
foot on it will not soon forget the result. 

Some of the species raise hills 6 feet high, others nest in dry leaves. 
Still others build mud nests in the trees or bushes. One of the latter 
species with a thick body three-fourths of an inch in length has a bull- 
dog grip, and when it has once taken hold its body may be torn from 
the head without causing it to let go. The sting of another of these 
nest-building species causes intense pain, frequently attended by some 
fever. 

Serious plagues of locusts sometimes occur, wiping the growing 
crops out of existence, while the larva? of many of the insects inflict 
more or less serious injury of one sort or another. Some of them bore 
in timber or in living trees, while others blight the growing rice. A 
few years since the coffee growers in the province of Batangas were 
rapidly accumulating large fortunes, when a borer appeared which 
worked in the stems of the coffee bushes and soon wiped the plantations 
out of existence. Thus far no effort has been made in the rhilippines 
to combat the insect pests, but the matter should be given serious 
attention in the future. 

ECHINOBERMATA, VERMES, CCELENTERATA, AND PROTOZOA. 

The remaining important groups of the animal kingdom may be 
very briefly dismissed. Although they are all most abundantly repre- 
sented in the Philippines, the}' have as yet hardly been studied at all, 
and a rich and almost unexplored field lies before the zoologist. The 
damp forests and warm seas of the archipelago swarm with life. Star- 
ashes and sea-urchins are abundant, and some of the latter are much 
feared by fishermen and divers on account of the danger of stepping 
on their poisonous spines. Land leeches swarm in the damp forests 
of certain of the islands and seriously annoy everyone who attempts 
to pass. They show a special fondness for tapping the veins on the 
inner sides of the ankles, and not infrequently cause considerable loss 
of blood. 

It is impossible to conceive of a more beautiful sight than that 
afforded by sailing over the wonderful coral beds of the southern 
islands and looking down through the clear water at the wonderful 
display of beautiful form and color in the depths below. A number 
of the islands of the Philippine group, like Guimaras, Cebu, and 
Siquijor, are covered completely over with a thick cap of coral lime- 



REPOBT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 327 

stone, showing the important part that the coral polyp has played in 
the archipelago during bygone centuries. That work is still going 
steadily on. 

The prevalence of amoebic dysentery in the Philippines shows that 
we can not even afford to neglect the protozoa in our study of animal 
life, and it is certain that a careful study of all the important groups, 
from the highest to the lowest, would result in great practical good. 



PAPER NO. VIU 



ETHNOGRAPHY 



329 



PROLOGUE 



The study of the races of man is always of great interest. This is 
especially true in the Philippines, where live the most distinct people, 
representing the greater part of the races of the globe, in some 
instances pure, in others mixed since very remote times. Here man 
presents himself with the greatest variety of characteristics conceivable, 
as has been noted by eminent ethnologists; for, beginning with the 
Negrito and ending with the Chinese and European mestizos, all the 
races are represented in these islands. 

All these most varied ethnological classes are mentioned in this 
treatise, which is divided into four parts. In the first, ethnogeny, the 
origin of these races is gone into. In the second, ethnology, their 
physical characteristics are analyzed. In the third, etology, the cus- 
toms peculiar to each people are described; and finally, in the fourth 
part, entitled " Idiomography," the languages or dialects are discussed. 1 

In order to reconcile brevity with the greatest possible clearness, we 
do not, as a rule, discuss or refute opinions opposed to those which are 
set forth, but merely mention them, setting down what is ordinarily 
considered most certain, or has seemed so to us. By this means the 
material is placed in convenient form for the reader, in order that in 
disputed and doubtful cases he may form his own opinion. 

1 The data contained in the second and third chapters of the fourth part are entirely 
due to Father Francisco Chorro, S. J. 

, 331 



PART I, 



ORIGIN OF THE PHILIPPINE PEOPLES. 



CHAPTER I. 



The Negritos are generally conceded by authors, who have investi- 
gated the subject, to have been the first inhabitants of the Philippine 
Islands. Absolutely conclusive arguments in favor of this statement 
have not been brought forward, but an attentive study of the differ- 
ent races of the archipelago, a minute comparison of the languages 
they have spoken, and finally the usages, customs, and distinctive char- 
acteristics of the Negritos make this theory highly probable. We 
have, furthermore, the testimony of the natives themselves, handed 
down by tradition from father to son, who say that when the first 
Indians arrived in the Philippines they were already held by the Aetas, 
by which name they designate the people here called Negritos. 

ORIGIN OF THE NEGRITOS. 

Their origin, the place from which they came, and also the pre- 
historic time of their establishment in this region, are difficult to 
determine with certainty. 

The time of the arrival of these blacks, as well as the reason for the 
same, and other points, are found by the contemporaneous writer 1 
"In the history of the fierce Cambises, when the inhabitants of Ethi- 
opia were fugitives, fleeing from the cruelty of the tyrannical con- 
queror, in the year 1529 before the Christian era, who, strengthened 
by their misfortune, launched themselves upon the stormy sea, naviga- 
ting in fragile and small embarkations, without any definite course, and 
driven by the wind or swept along by currents, reached the places 
where we find them to-day." This explanation, while not altogether 
impossible, is, on the other hand, far from certain, and has no weight 
of authority further than the opinion of a private individual. On 
the other hand various authors believe that these Negritos have their 
origin in equatorial Africa, and that, having sailed from there and 
lost their course, or by some other chance, they went to New Guinea, 
and from the territory of the Papuans came to the Philippine 
Archipelago. 

1 Work entitled ''Exploration of the territory of Davao, Philippines, " made by 
Don Joaquin Rajal, p. 13. 

333 



334 REPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

The Jesuit father, J. Delgado, in his important history of the Phil- 
ippine Islands l discusses in detail this very point. Here is his opinion, 
condensed into a few words, and freed from lengthy digressions: 

It is difficult to ascertain from whence or how the Negritos can have come to these 
islands, for authors are agreed only on the fact that they have come, and are here, 
and that they inhabit the most rugged mountains without any sort of order. Such 
savages must have come from New Guinea or the country of the Papuans, who are 
below the equator. They may have come to that place from Nueva Bretana, which 
is the nearest land; they might have arrived here from New Holland, and to this 
they may have come from other contiguous territory more to the south by some 40 
degrees, having finally reached this by unknown land bordering on the Cape of 
Good Hope and Caff raria. Wherefore the fount and origin of such a race of savage 
blacks is Caffraria, and this also was the opinion of the celebrated geographer, 
Homman de Norimberga. Nor does this theory demand other proof than the 
knowledge that there do not exist blacks of this sort in any other country except 
Caffraria, in Africa; on the side of America and about the Straits of Magellan all of 
the nations which have been discovered are Indian, very distinct from the Camrs, 
both in body and intellect. 

It should be added that if the Philippine Negrito, as he exists to-day, 
be compared with the African, a sufficient number of characteristics 
will be found to indicate a relationship with the latter race. This is 
the opinion of Senor J. Mallat, who states very definitely 2 that if some 
difference is noted between the two types it may readily- be explained 
as a result of the very distinct conditions between the two countries 
which have fallen to the lot of the one and the other. The Filipino 
has a very fertile soil, and shelters himself in the densest forests, while 
the African inhabits arid deserts burned b} r the sun. 

As for the immediate origin of the Negritos, it is believed by many 
historians that they come in reality from New Guinea, and this con- 
clusion readily reached by exclusion, for in the north no people is 
found similar to the black Negros, and the inhabitants of Japan, although 
not entirely white like the Europeans, are not black, but are rather of 
a brownish yellow color. To the northwest lies the Empire of China, 
the inhabitants of which are, as a rule, light colored, although one 
sometimes finds swarthy individuals among those who inhabit the sea- 
coast. The nations which inhabit the coast region of India are Mala- 
bars, who, although of (mite dark color, are neither blacks nor Caffirs, 
but are so distinct from them that they would have few differences 
from Spaniards or other Europeans if they were white. 

It may he added to what has been said that the nature of all these 
people is very different from the fierce character of the Caffirs. They 
are in general tolerant, tractable, capable, and well adapted to business 
and to the maintenance of relations with other people, while the blacks 
almost completely lack all of this. The numerous and well-marked 
Papuan types, which are to-day to be met with in the most inaccessible 
and roughest mountains of the archipelago, are rough and uncivilized 
in the extreme, nor do they have more culture or practice more indus- 
tries than they may have had and practiced in the past centuries. 

The following historic case is also worthy of notice, and may con- 
siderably strengthen the opinion set forth: In the year 1(545, when 
Gen. Lopez de Villalobos was in the Moluco, and desired to send from 
there a snip to New Spain in order to give to the viceroy an account 

1 Histoids genera] sacro-profana, polftica y natural de las islas del Poniente, llama- 
das Filipinss, por el P. Juan .1. Delgado, de la Compaflia de .Jesus, juirte la libro, 3°; 
capitulo, 1°. 

' In the work entitled Les Plulipmes, toni. 1, Cap. III. 



Plate I. 




NEGRITOS, OR AETAS. 
Types as found to-day in the mountains. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 335 

of the condition in which he was, he gave orders that the voyage 
should be undertaken by the southern route and the land of the 
Papuans, or New Guinea, for greater security, believing that the sea 
in those regions would be smoother than to the northward. The ves- 
sels sailed on their course, and having navigated to the coasts of New 
Guinea with favorable winds, a distance of some 600 leagues, they ran 
great risk, because large embarkations filled with black negroes came 
out from the shores, and these blacks were so fierce and warlike that, 
in order to prevent being captured, it was continually necessary to 
resort to arms; and before the year 1859 Don Alvaro de Medana, hav- 
ing set sail from Callao with the purpose of colonizing the Solomon 
Islands, discovered a large island full of blacks who came from New 
Guinea. 

It is therefore not strange, but on the contrary quite natural, keep- 
ing in view the preceding facts, that the blacks of New Guinea may 
have come to people the islands t)f this archipelago. At all events, this 
belief is perhaps the most probable, at least so far as concerns the first 
and most important invasions. However, it may well be that in these 
early times blacks from Australia, whose characteristics do not greatly 
differ from those of the Papuans, may have come to the Philippines 
through losing their way, or for some other reason. Nor can it be 
doubted that the Philippine blacks may have originated, in part at 
least, as others believe, from those who in remote time dominated the 
Peninsula of Malacca and the Asiatic archipelago. 

THEIR FORTUNE IN THE ARCHIPELAGO AND THEIR PRESENT STATE. 

This race, savage and barbarous to a degree, and consequently weak, 
conquered later by more robust invaders who were endowed with a 
certain degree of culture, was compelled to take refuge in the moun- 
tain forests, where it is still to be met with at different points in the 
archipelago, although decreasing from day to day and soon to com- 
pletely disappear. The reason for this is, in addition to inborn bar- 
Dai ism and a nomadic life, that this race, regarding the rest of mankind 
as enemies, has passed its life in a most regrettable isolation, living in 
a manner more fit for wild beasts than for rational beings. 



CHAPTER II. 

MORE RECENT POPULATORS. 

The Negritos, being in possession of the land and being warlike and 
cruel, undoubtedly had many encounters and struggles with the new 
invaders, and the latter, being victorious, took possession of the coast 
region and the fertile plains. When their enemies, the Negritos, had 
taken to the forests, they established themselves little by little in these 
pleasant regions, forming towns and states of a certain sort, governed 
by chiefs or rulers, with the title of rajah, under whom they defended 
themselves against their enemies. This is the origin of the large num- 
ber of provinces in which they were distributed at the time of the arrival 
of the Spaniards. The greater part of them, as well as of the towns, 
still retain their names, which are in perfect accord with the language 
of these new inhabitants. 

p c— vol 3—01 33 



336 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

GENERAL ORIGIN OF THE INDIANS. 

What were they, and whence did they originate? A certain combi- 
nation of relationship and affinity in language, usages, and customs, 
as well as in physiognomy, leads to the belief that they were derived 
from the Malayan race, which is that of the Indian native to the islands 
situated between Ceylon and this archipelago. From this trunk it is 
believed that almost all the natives are primarily derived, although they 
show a great variety of types. This variety is so great that at first 
sight it seems to make impossible a belief in a common origin, but this, 
can be and is sustained, especially by the analogy and language which 
may still be discovered, and which is undoubtedly the surest means of 
determining the origin of peoples. 

It is, indeed, a cause of no small wonder to find in these regions so 
maiw people with different languages that the same tongue is hardly 
spoken on two islands. In Luzon each province has its special dialect, 
which is not understood except hy its inhabitants. The Tagalogs and 
Pampangos speak different tongues. The Pangasinans, Ilocanos, and 
Cagayans have in their respective territories their special languages. 
The people of Camarines are distinct from all the others. The Visay- 
ans, although almost all of them speak one language, nevertheless vary 
it so much in the different provinces that it seems like a distinct tongue 
in each. The native of Bohol does not pronounce certain letters. The 
native of Cebu has his special wa} T of speaking, which is distinct from 
that of the native of Samar and Leyte, whose dialect is richer, more 
complicated, and has a greater abundance of words, which are. further 
more, pronounced more rapidly than in the regions above referred to; 
and this without mentioning the island of Mindanao, where, on account 
of words derived from the Moro dialect, the difference is perhaps 
greater than in any other island. 

Notwithstanding this the great readiness with which the natives of 
one province learn the languages of other provinces and towns proves 
that many of these dialects have a common origin, for the Europeans 
can not do this without much laborious study, nor could they do it if 
their dialects differed as much among themselves as they differ from 
ours. It is proved furthermore by the large mini her of common 
words, although they may be differently conjugated and combined 
and sometimes changed in their significance as well as in pronunciation, 
which mav he nasal or guttural. 

This common origin is believed in by various authors, and among 
them, curiously enough. Father Delgaao, who has already been men- 
tioned, and who does not agree with certain Spanish authors in assign- 
ing a Malayan origin only to the Tagalogs and different origins to the 
other peoples simply on the basis of the diversity of languages. It 
might undoubtedly very well be that the natives of these islands should 
have a single origin and should yet go on separating from each other and 
Varying in the matter of language 4 . Furthermore, we know through 
history that the discoverers brought with them Malayan interpreters, 
who were dist ributed in those early day s through the Yisayan Islands and 
Mindanao, and who were quite well instructed in the language of that 
region. Prom this it may be inferred that there is no occasion to seek 
one origin for the Visayans and Mindanaos and a different one for the 
Tagalogs. whom everyone admits to be Malay. Furthermore, it is cer- 
tainly evident that the two tongues, Tagalog and Visayan, differ little or 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION". 337 

not at all in the general plan, and in the roots from which the verbs are 
derived, being almost identical in all their parts, and even the conjuga- 
tions in the one and the other tongue are the same, and the language 
among the Visayans being more univocal, the pronunciations are so 
different as to appear distinct to those who have not passed some years 
in the countr} r . 

We admit that there would be greater difficulty in satisfactorily 
determining the origin of the Pampangos, neighbors of the Tagalogs, 
who have a distinct language, but their features, dispositions, and cus- 
toms agree with those of the Tagalogs, and, furthermore, in this case 
the fact already mentioned as to the readiness with which they learn 
each other's language and all learn the language of the Visayans is of 
significance. Various experiments have been made with Tagalog and 
Pampango children who have been taken to the Visayan Islands and 
in less than a month have spoken the language as if it were their own. 
A similar argument may be made in case of the Cagayans, Ilocanos, 
Pangasinans, and other people, the difference in whose dialects is not 
sufficient to destroy belief in their Malayan origin. 

On the other hand, Fr. M. Zuniga defended on various grounds, 1 and, 
singularly enough, on account of the agreement between the dialects, 
the theory that these Indians came from tropical America. Other 
authors find the immediate origin of all or some of the Philippine peo- 
ples in different islands or lands of Oceania. 

NATIVES OF MINDANAO. 

Let us now consider with particular care the origin of the native 
inhabitants of Mindanao. It would appear that at least as far as their 
immediate origin is concerned it can not be different from that of the 
other Indians, whether they came there from Borneo, from the Moluc- 
cas, or from others of the Indonesian Islands. 

So far as concerns the Manobos, Bagobos, and the tribes derived 
from them, a modern explorer believes 2 that if one studies their 
vocabulary its origin is obviously related to that of the Ovas of Madagas- 
car, whose individuals must have arrived on the island which they to-day 
inhabit at the same time that the former people reached the Philippine 
Archipelago. It would seem probable that, having undertaken together 
the emigration from Asia, they may have become separated at sea 
through causes beyond their control. It may also be supposed that 
some of the Ovas arrived after the others, as is indicated by the Visayan 
word "bago" (new), a classification which might be explained with 
reference to their coming to the country. And we should say that the 
Manobos must have been somewhat earlier, because if their coming 
had extended over a considerable period up to the arrival of the Bago- 
bos they would not have had such an appropriate term for designating 
the common time of their arrival in the country. The word " mano- 
bos" expresses very well the idea, "man of the sort of the ovas," 
while "bagobos" means "new ovas." 

Others believe that the word "manobos" is derived from "manuba," 
and this in turn from "man-suba," which signifies "inhabitant of a 



1 See his Historia de las islas Filipinas, Sanpaloc, 1803. 

2 Don Joaquin Rajal, op. cit. ; p. 16. 



338 KEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

The Mandayas also, like the Manobos, give origins to various terms, 
and their antiquity is not to be disputed. The word "Mandayas" 
signifies " deseendent of the Bayas," and " Dayas" or "Dayacs" is the 
term applied to the natives of southern and western Borneo. 

We might continue this discussion to the other different groups 
which peopled the island of Mindanao before taking up the Moham- 
medan race, and its origin, more or less remote, might be found to be 
either Indonesian or Malayan. 

CONFIRMATIVE ARGUMENT. 

For the rest it is to be clearly borne in mind that certain differences, 
although they ma} T seem notable, are not sufficient ground for attribut- 
ing to one race an origin distinct from that of another. Otherwise we 
should be compelled to seek a different origin for each one of the very 
large number of tribes of pagans which are to be met with in the 
Philippines, and especially in the great islands of Luzon and Mindanao. 
The sort of life that each people leads, the region which it occupies, 
and other circumstances are more than sufficient to impress upon it a 
peculiar character which separates it from other peoples, if not com- 
pletely, at least in very important particulars, as we see happening in 
Europe among the different nations, like the Spanish, the French, or 
the Italians, in spite of the close relationships which unite their people. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE MOROS. 

After the Negritos, the true aborigines, and after the second inva- 
sion had spread over the entire archipelago, as has already been 
described, the Moro tribe ought to he cited among the peoples which 
have most deeply impressed their characteristics in these islands. In 
an evil hour a death-hearing plague of them invaded many regions of 
India and archipelagos of Oceania. 

TIME OF \i;ki\ Ai.. 

At what time did the arrival in these islands of the Mohammedan 
Malays occur? It seems evident that it could not have been before 
the invasions of the Indians above mentioned, because had this been 
llu- case the fact would have been indicated in the written traditions 
which the Mohammedan race keep, since it is somewhat more civilized 
i ban were (he other peoples. Nor would it be easy to understand how 
they could have imposed I heir rule on the Moros. \'ov we know, on the 
contrary, that the latter, endowed with greater native valor, imposed 
their authority on the former and laid the heavy yoke o\' bondage 
w here they would. 

Don Joaquin Rajal, after investigating this point, makes the follow- 
ing statement: ] "The invasion of the Mohammedan Malays must, in 
our tnodesl opinion, go back to those authorized by Mohammed and 
brought to a conclusion by some of his subchiefs. It is well known 



'op. cit, |-. L3. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 339 

that the subjects of that extraordinary man carried the beliefs of Islam 
throughout India, extended them over the islands of the sound and 
the other archipelagos of Oceania." A little further down he con- 
tinues: "Another indication of the antiquity of Mohammedanism in 
those islands is furnished us by the name Soliman, which was applied 
to certain rulers, a fact which proves not only their ancestry, but also 
a frequent contact with their progenitors, as well as expeditions to 
Mecca, which they make even to-day periodically, and which in former 
times, according to the traditions which they preserve, were of great 
importance." 

ESTABLISHMENT IN THIS COUNTRY. 

When the Moros arrived they met the earlier populators and owners 
of the islands and waged ferocious war with them in order to establish 
themselves at the mouths of the large rivers and to be able to spread 
along their banks, situations which they have always preferred for the 
sites of their dwellings. Hostilities did not cease, but from the begin- 
ning have continued up to the present, caused by the frequent excur- 
sions of the Moros for the purpose of taking slaves, practicing piracy, 
and extending the belief of their sect. 

In these repeated encounters the Indians and the Negritos frequent^ 
made common cause, attempting to resist their advances, which were, 
nevertheless, very successful. The result of this seems to have been 
that those who at first obeyed an hereditary chief and respected cer- 
tain hierarchies, later, taking a fancy to the richness and delightful 
character of the country, divided the territory, and establishing a 
sort of feudalism, in which various chiefs governed more or less 
independently. 

Such is the probable origin and progress of Mohammedan domina- 
tion in these islands. Others, however, with equal probability believe 
it to be much more recent, antedating the arrival of the Spaniards very 
little. The Jesuit Father Combes l makes the following statement: 

Since Mohammedanism is recent in India, and from there has been carried to these 
regions, it may be understood that this people have occupied these coasts for but a 
short time. 

Furthermore, rnairy are of the opinion that the occupation of these 
regions by the Moros does not partake of the character of a national 
invasion. " Father Pastells, S. J . , expresses his opinion in the following 
terms : 2 

Ethnological, philological, and anthropological proofs demonstrate clearly the fact 
that the Moros did not come in great numbers to occupy the regions of Sulu, Min- 
danao, and Palawan, but rather that they exerted moral influence over the natives 
through commerce and a sectarian propaganda, making Moros of the pagans of the 
coast region by means of their preaching and their superstitious practices. There- 
fore the nucleus of the population of the coasts of Mindanoa, Basilan, Sulu, and Pala- 
wan is composed of natives, and those who came from abroad were only the ances- 
tors of the datos and panditas of the Sultans and sherifes, who are the ones that by 
hereditary right rule and tvrannize over the great mass of the Moro population. The 
proof of this is found in the strongly marked Malayan type which they all show. 
Without going farther it may be seen that to-day the Malayan sherifes come to 
install themselves, and are received with religious respect in the Moro settlements. 



1 Historia de Mindanao y Jolo, by Father Francisco Combes, of the Company of 
Jesus. (Vol. I, Chapter XL) 

2 See Vol. IX of the Letters of the Fathers of the Company of Jesus belonging to 
the Philippine Mission. (Appendix, p. 638. ) 



340 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

They are the very ones who are charged with the duty of sustaining and developing 
the fanaticism of their sect. According to my observations, they are not numerous in 
the districts of Cottabato and Davao, but are met with more frequently in Isabela de 
Basilan and Sulu. 

It is certain that when Spain established here her domination through 
the immortal Magellan the Moros were found to be strong at the better 
points in Luzon, Mindanao, Sulu, and other island groups of the South, 
where they held many of the natives enslaved, and had led astray many 
more with the novelty of their doctrines and the beliefs of the Koran. 

INTERMARRIAGE OF THE RACES. 

At this time the complicated intermingling of customs, usages, and 
superstitions between the different populators of the islands was not 
less worthy of note than the anthropological amalgamation which was 
bound to come as an immediate result of the intimate intercourse and 
friction of such varied races and peoples. The schism introduced 
among the pagans and the guerrilla warfare which the Islemites espe- 
cially waged, and which all the rest imitated, made opportunity for an 
important and constant slave trade, resulting in such a crossing of the 
races that two centuries later it was a very difficult undertaking to 
distinguish the characteristics of the primitive elements which were 
the origin of such a confused mass. 

THE CHINESE AND JAPANESE. 

Among the causes which have contributed to bring about the changes 
in the primitive class throughout almost the entire archipelago must 
be mentioned long-standing and constant commerce with the neighbor- 
ing Empires of China and Japan. Before Magellan discovered the 
Philippine Archipelago the Chinese and Japanese were already making 
excursions to the coasts of some of the islands in order to possess 
themselves of the gold which the natives brought from the mountains, 
in return for which they gave the Indians cloth, arms, and trifles of 
various sorts. 

How much the association and the commerce above referred to con- 
tributed to change the type and the character of the natives is a mat- 
ter concerning which there are differences of opinion. "These rela- 
tions," says AY. E. Retana, " were nevertheless very superficial, audit 
may be taken as certain that the sons of the Celestial Empire did not 
modify much or little the anthropological characteristics of the island- 
ers. Neither history, nor philology, nor ethnography lends probability 
to ;i belief in the existence of mixed races before the time of the Span- 
iard."' Another contemporaneous author,'-' without denying that 
there is not seen the least trace of Chinese script in the primitive 

alphabets of the Indian, nor are there Chinese roots in their dialects, 
nevertheless inclines to the opposite opinion as regards the crossing 
"i' the races, bringing forward the argument that the savages of Ben- 
guet use very frequently in their language the sounds "cha'- and " che," 

and that the Tinguianes, who inhabit the heights of Candon. give indi- 
cation at the tirst glance of their Chinese origin by reason of their 
color, features, and dress, and he finally draws the conclusion from 

1 History of Father Conbee already cited. Table V, coL 778. 
Author of the \\<>rk [nforme sobre el estado <lc las Islas Filipinasen 1842. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 341 

characteristics, such as broad skull, sharp facial angle, and peculiar 
hair, which he has noted in some instances as a result of personal 
examination, a very ancient mingling- between the Papuan and Mon- 
golian peoples. 

Another writer of our day expresses himself as follows: 1 

The data which prove the effect of the Chinese on the former population of the 
archipelago are so numerous that we do not believe one who has made a somewhat 
detailed study of the idolatrous peoples of Luzon can do less than admit it. The 
proximity of the continent to the western coast of the archipelago, the action of the 
monsoon, and the adventurous spirit of the sons of the great Empire allow it to be 
supposed that from very ancient times they came to these Spanish countries of 
Oceania. It should be remembered in this connection that even in the ninth cen- 
tury the Chinese and Malays frequently entered into relationships with each other, 
and that before this epoch the Japanese had reached the islands of the sound. 

This author further adduces the fact, among other proofs, that the 
industries of the pagans of Lepanto, which have attracted the attention 
of travelers, may be due to Chinese origin. In the annals of the 
Empire it is attested that the Emperor Ton-hi taught his subjects to 
cast bronze, also the fact that among the religious practices of the 
pagan tribe the cult of the anitos, so sacred to the Chinese, is seen to 
predominate. 

Be this as it may, it is certain that as the years passed by commerce 
between China and the archipelago was regulated to a notable degree, 
important expeditions being made, and many of the members of the 
same remaining in the islands, especially in Luzon and at points some- 
what near Manila. Latterly Chinese immigration has increased to 
such a notable degree that the mixed Chinese Malayan race is rep- 
resented in the archipelago by perhaps half a million individuals. 

THE NATIVES OF BORNEO. 

It is evident also that the people of Borneo were at the time of the 
conquest in frequent communication with those of Mindanao, Sulu, 
and the Visayan Islands, as well as with the Tagalogs, whom they 
infected with their beliefs. At present these relations are of small 
interest, and very few natives of that island exist in the Philippines. 

VARIOUS OASES OF OTHER PEOPLES. 

Mention is also made within the time of the Spaniards of various 
arrivals of embarkations from the Palaos, Caroline, and other islands, 
as a result of contrary winds or for other reasons. "In 1699," says 
Father M. de Zuiiiga 1 " two canoes which arrived from the Palaos in 
Samar occupied seventy days in covering the distance of 300 leagues. 
Their crew consisted of thirty persons, between men and women, and 
only live men died within the passage. In the year 1725 there was 
driven on the coast near Baler an embarkation with some twenty men. 
On other occasions through similar accidents people have come from 
the Palaos and the Carolines to the Marianes and other islands." 
Later, in 1749, seventeen embarkations were driven out to sea, only one 

x See Tierras y Razas del Archipielago Filipino por Jose de Lacalle. Part II, 
Chapter II. 

2 Estidismo de las Islas Filipinas 6 mis viajes por este pais, por el Padre Fr. Joaquin 
Martinez de Zuiiiga Agustino Calrado; obra extensamente anotada por W. E. Retana. 
Como lo Madrid, 1893, page 429. 



342 REPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

of which made land in Guinan. Other cases like these have occurred 
more recently. Castes of half European men, Avhich, as may be heard 
from former and present missionaries, are to be met with sometimes 
at remote points, may probably be explained in a similar way. We 
give one of these cases which Father Delgado instances, as it was noted 
by the first officer of a certain Spanish vessel, Pedro Fernandez de 
Quiros, when Don Antonio de Morga was lieutenant-general of the 
island: " While sailing along the south coast at about ten degrees we 
saw an island which we called Magdalena, and from its port there came 
forth to receive us in sixty boats more than 400 white Indians of very 
mild disposition, well formed, large, robust, and of good figures. The\ T 
had fine teeth and eyes, good mouths, very slender hands and feet, 
straight hair, and man}^ of them were very Hght colored, among them 
some very fine-looking bo}^s. . This white and ruddy people is judged," 
adds the above-mentioned father, u to be descended from Europeans 
formerly shipwrecked among those islands. These people are called 
Caesars on account of their beauty and well-regulated bodies." 

Here is another case which confirms the preceding. Miguel Lopez 
de Legazpi had hardly arrived at Cebu when he got tidings of various 
Spaniards of the first armada who had remained there, where they 
had married and become citizens, and having sent to a town called 
Basey in the island of Samar embarkations with ransoms to redeem 
them, an Indian named Juanes said that the others had died in a cer- 
tain war, nor did he know more of them. 

ORIGIN OF OTHER PEOPLES. 

It can not be doubted that there came to the Philippines at different 
times peoples of other regions, islands, and continents, and this would 
seem to be indicated by the name barangay, which is here employed 
to denote a tribe or settlement, because in its primary sense barangay 
is a launch or boat, and according to traditions, which it is easy to find 
among the natives, those who came in a barangay formed a separate 
tribe and were governed only by themselves. 

Hence the word "barangay," by which is signified a definite num- 
ber of families settled at a definite point and affording people suffi- 
cient to occupy embarkations of this sort; whereby is also made clear 
how the natives in part populated the islands by means of barangays 
directed by their headman, called for this reason "cabeza (head) de 
barangay." 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Up to this point we have indicated some of the peoples which proba- 
bly have come to constitute the population of the Philippines with the 
certain probable or commonly accepted explanation of their origin. 
Many other ethnological classes of less importance are characterized 
by authors which have treated this subject more or less fully. As to 
this mutter, as well as in the discussion of the place of their origin and 
of the immigration which brought each one of them, there are such 
different and often such contradictory views that it would require 
volumes to thoroughly discuss the matter. The truth is that in spite 
<>f all this it has not been stated to the satisfaction of the reader how 
and from whence it has been possible to assemble in this archipelago 
Mich a complicated aggregation of peoples and castes as we see to-day. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 343 

ETHNO-GEOGRAPHIC THEORT. 

With a view to explaining this confusion and variety there is cur- 
rent a singular opinion which is certainly not well proved, but on the 
other hand is not impossible, and which on account of its magnificence 
does not lack interest. Here it is: If one looks at the map, one sees 
that the Philippine Archipelago seems to be united at the points 
Unsang and Banguey with Borneo by means of two strings of islands. 
Still more striking is the line which the Andamon and Mcobar islands, 
Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbava, Flores, Timor, etc. , form from 
the Cape Nigres, in the Gulf of Bengal, to New Guinea. These islands are 
undoubtedly a chain of mountains which run from one extreme to the 
other. May it not then have happened that all of these islands formed a 
continent, and that in a horrible cataclysm the waters invaded the plains, 
leaving only the elevated points visible? On this supposition the 
inhabitants who had spread into this continent from all the neighbor- 
ing continents, of various races, separated more or less irom each other 
by natural boundaries, found themselves obliged to take refuge in the 
mountains, where we see them to-day, isolated and showing a great 
variety of races and customs. How otherwise can it be explained 
that the inhabitants of Oceania have communicated with each other? 
That is not to sa} r that in very remote times they had obtained a civiliza- 
tion similar to ours, of which no sign remains at present. Quite the 
reverse. 

In conformit} r with this theory Senor Retana explains the origin of 
the populators of the Philippines as follows: 1 

This continent, of which scientists tell us, transformed later into great groups of 
islands, may have been united to the continent of Asia. If this Avas the case, in very 
remote times there came from Asia the Aetas, who settled certain regions in the vast 
territory. If an actual union did not exist, it must have been possible to cross with- 
out great difficulty, in view of the proximity between Sumatra and the Peninsula 
of Malacca, which must have been much greater in bygone times. When the cata- 
clysm occurred, that is to say when there took place the great transformation which 
geologists recognize, the Aetas or Negritos were the only inhabitants of the Philip- 
pines. It should be understood that the period included between the dispersal of 
the Aetas over the Oceanic Continent, and the breaking up of this continent included 
some centuries. Time passed and the brown Malays invaded the Philippine Islands 
as they invaded many others of the Pacific islands. 

The reader may use his own judgment as to the plausibility of such 
an ethno-geographic theory. On the other hand, if he adopts the 
opinion first expressed, the paths have already been indicated along 
which the various populators of the islands may have arrived. 

EUROPEAN MESTIZOS. 

Finally, to the classes of Indians already mentioned there must be 
added a new class — that of the European mestizos, which in number 
and in area occupied has gone on increasing since the beginning of 
Spanish domination. This caste is usually the most important and 
noble, because it has, if one may say so, in its very blood the nature 
and the culture of a superior race. Individuals of this sort are to be 
found in all regions which have been reached by the commerce of 
Europe, but they are particularly numerous, as may readily be under- 
stood, at the capital and in its vicinity, as well as in the various pro- 
vincial capitals and more important towns. 

!Op. cit. Vol. IT, App. G, p. 488. 



344 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

EUROPEAN COLONY. 

In the European colony there are representatives of all nations, the 
Spaniards being the more numerous than the English, the Germans, 
and the French. Thus it may be said that there are found residing in 
the islands representatives of almost all the nations of Asia, India, and 
Europe, and since Manila is the center and head of the whole archi- 
pelago and its commerce, it has a diversity in its inhabitants such as is 
hardly to be met with in any other city of the globe. 



CHAPTER IV. 



PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS. 



It was not without reason that a celebrated naturalist said there was 
no countr} r like the Philippines for making a complete study of the 
races of man. Such is the variety of the tribes, some of which are 
hidden away in the mountains, others of which are scattered about the 
coast and lowland forests of the archipelago, that it would be difficult 
to find a land where man presented himself to the eyes of the ethnolo- 
gist with conditions so extraordinary and worthy of such careful atten- 
tion. But these peoples seem to be mixed in such a way that it is 
commonly admitted to be a difficult undertaking to determine their 
characteristics and analogies with sufficient precision in order to be able 
to determine definitely the primitive type predominating among each 
one of them. He who reads will see that many travelers have come to 
this conclusion after visiting these tropical regions, and have set forth 
their views in their writings. Nor would their confession be necessary 
in order to make plain the difficulty which they encounter; for, since 
they have gone to almost all the different and most remote regions of 
the globe in order to seek and find the origin of these people, still they 
disagree in various ways as to the method of grouping the tribes and 
classifying them among themselves. Ma} r it be that they have not 
made as yet a complete and conscientious study of the material at hand \ 

Undoubtedly this work would present very great interest not only 
for history, but also for other important modern sciences. But there 
are not lacking those who believe that its completion could hardly be 
attained, on account of a lack of data in regard to the prehistoric periods 
in which the Oceanic races lived. For the rest, examining carefully the 
organic characteristics and the physiological peculiarities which the 
Dumerous tribes present who, as a matter of fact, inhabit the Philip- 
pine Islands, some of them being savages and others civilized, special 
and distinctive conditions may be deduced of such a nature as to serve 
a- a basis and foundation for a satisfactory classification. 

VARIOUS ETHNOLOGICAL CONDITIONS. 

Before presenting what it has seemed best to adopt, w 7 e will make a 
brief summary of sonic of the opinions of other authors. 

There arc those who maintain that three trunks have given origin to 
the inhabitants which people theOceanic Islands— the Malayans. Melan- 
esians, and Polynesians. The author who has already been cited, Don 
Jose de Lacalle, with the purpose, as he says, of leaving intact the 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 345 

problem of the Philippine races, admits the following distinction: He 
first considers by itself and describes the black and aboriginal race, sepa- 
rate from the other peoples by well-determined characteristics, and he 
thus includes the remaining peoples under two great groups, conven- 
iently known as " pagan-mestizo" tribes and " Christianized " peoples, 
a division established solely on the basis of the intellectual condition of 
the peoples and their religious beliefs. 

There are other authors who reduce the various native inhabitants 
of the Philippines to only two branches — the Negrito and the Malay. 
Among these should be mentioned F. Blumentritt, who, in his Vade- 
mecum, 1 divides all of the Philippine peoples into three groups ; that is, 
tribes of the Malay race, tribes of the Negrito or Aeta race, and mixed 
tribes of Malayan -Negrito origin. 

Finally, the English naturalist, Wallace, and the Dutch, H. Kern, 
and Robide, maintain that the Papuans and the Malays belong to the 
same race, founding this proposition on the study of their languages. 
Senor Retana, who has already been mentioned, inclines somewhat to 
this view, which affiliates under a single mother race, namely, the 
Mala}^ race of the native races of the Philippines. 2 

CLASSIFICATION WHICH WE ADOPT. 

In this way we might go on stating in order the various views as to the 
classification of these peoples; but, in order to avoid prolixity, we come 
immediately to the statement which has seemed to us preferable, and 
which we simply advance as the one adopted by Dr. Montano after 
the studies which he made on his celebrated trip through these islands. 
It is first given as he himself sets it forth. 3 

The peninsula of Malacca and the whole of the great Asiatic archipelago to the 
east of Flores, Ceram, Gilolo, or, if you please, the limit of the Papuan race, seems to 
be populated by three very distinct races, namely, the Negrito, the Indonesian, and 
the Malay. At all events, this is the conclusion which I have reached from my 
observations of the human beings inhabiting this region to-day, and from my conclu- 
sions which have been gathered in all of the regions that I have traveled through. 

The distribution of these races might well be represented according 
to the author cited by means of three concentric zones, the interior 
one occupied by the Negrito, driven back toward the centers of the 
lands which they inhabited by the Indonesian invasion. The second 
zone occupied by the latter tribe, dislodged in their turn from the 
coast regions by the Malays, who are almost the only inhabitants in the 
exterior zone, and are found scattered about everywhere on the coasts. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

In Map No. 3 of the Atlas of the Philippines it may be seen how 
we represent the various races scattered throughout the different 
regions of the Philippine group, under the three tribes above men- 

1 Vademecum etnografico de Filipinas. Madrid, Establecimiento tipogranco de 
Fortanet. 

2 See the work cited, Estradismo de las Islas Filipinas. Appendix G., pages 
488-492. 

3 In the work, Rapport a M. le Ministre de 1 instruction publique sur une Mission 
aux isles Philippines et en Malaisie (1879-1881) par M. le Docteur T. Montano. 
Cap. III. 



346 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

tioned. In respect to the latter we must state that on account of the 
great difficulty above set forth in determining the primitive and domi- 
nant type in which one of the peoples have not always been assigned 
to the various races with such certainty that it might not prove that 
they belonged to a different one, for it must be known that these races 
are profoundly modified by the large amount of intermarriage which 
has inevitably come about during many centuries of piracy, continuous 
warfares, slavery, and more or less commerce between the various 
tribes, as well as between them and the countries from which they 
came. 

Wherefore in this classification which we adopt, and which seems 
best to carry out our undertaking of classifying the different Philip- 
pine peoples, we note the most conspicuous type of each class, but 
we especially note the organization and distinctive peculiarities which 
the people that populate the Philippine soil at present show, leaving 
for later and detailed investigations the determination, without uncer- 
tainty as to what shall be finally the true ethnographical definition 
which should be applied to these natives. 

A description of each one of the groups named will form the subject- 
matter of the second part of this treatise, in which there will be given. 
first, the general characteristics of the races, and, second, the peculiari- 
ties of each people or tribe of the same. 

Finally, there may be seen in the same Map No. 3 another classifica- 
tion, which, under another form, includes all the natives of the archi- 
pelago, in the three following groups: First, the tribes that have long 
been Christianized; second, Pagans and very recently Christianized 
peoples; third, Mohammedans. 



PART II. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RACES INHAB 
ITDJG THE PHILIPPINES. 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Among the various inhabitants of the Philippines it is certain that 
the Negritos alone present well-marked racial characteristics by which 
it is easy to separate them from all the rest, although one can not 
fail to note in them certain indications of the inevitable influence of 
the other races which have invaded the country. 

Dr. Montano describes them as follows : 

The Negritos attract attention at the first glance on account of the relatively large 
size of the head, the lack of trognathism, and the elevation of the cheek bone. Their 
general aspect is that of a weak people. The thorax is slightly developed, the legs 
lack well-developed calves. The feet, which are quite clumsy and large, are some- 
what turned in, the direction being exaggerated on account of the position of the great 
toe, which is conspicuously separated from the others, which are very short. The 
abdominal wall, which is very firm, has a semispherical form. The opening of the 
eye is usually prolonged and rectilinear, although it sometimes describes a somewhat 
pronounced curve. The sickle-shaped fold is lacking, although the internal prolonga- 
tion of the upper eyelid tends to form a fold which appears to be its rudiment.. 

They distinguish colors well, although they lack words for naming them. The 
forehead is notably high and vertical, and forms a very distinct angle with the trans- 
verse plane of the face. The antero-posterior curvature of the skull is circular in 
general, and is quite high. The same is true of the transverse curve. The posterior 
region of the head is always more or less flat, and not infrequently even depressed in 
the center of the right side, this being in relationship with the flow of the humors (?) . 

The hair is abundant and very fine, crisp, and closely curled, and implanted in 
groups of hairs regularly scattered over the scalp. It grows white before the age of 
50 years. The cross section of a hair is frequently ellipitical, not kidney shaped, and 
sometimes rather ovoid. 

The beard, which presents the same characteristics as the hair, is sometimes thick, 
and in that case covers the whole lower jaw, as well as the upper lip. More frequently it 
is thin and limited to the region of the upper lip to the mentum, and to the upper 
part of the ascending branch of the mandibula. 

The color of the eyes does not correspond exactly to any of the colors of the chromatic 
scale. Irregularities of the implantation of the teeth are frequent, especially in the 
case of the incisors, but this is much less frequent than ulceration, almost always 
limited to the molars and to be observed in different stages of development in almost 
all individuals. The superior incisors are more frequently filed to a point, the 
oblique and lateral part of the tooth including two-thirds of its free portion. 

Comparison with the Papuans. — To the preceding description we 
consider it opportune to add another from a recent work, 1 in order 

1 Tierras y razas, por Jose de Lacalle. 

347 
P C— VOL 3—01 34 



348 EEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

that the principal characteristics of the Negritos may be compared 
with those presented by the Papuans in New Guinea, and at the same 
time to take up and consider the osteological studies of Virchow and 
other ethnologists. It is to be noted that the author is not in con- 
formity with those who represent the Negritos as having ill-pro- 
portioned, weak, and poorly organized bodies, these characteristics 
pertaining only to certain individuals, on account of their way of life 
and local conditions in general. He gives the following account: 

The body of the Negrito is regularly formed. Their height varies from 1.30 to 
1.57 meters, being less in the case of the women. In general it may be said to be a 
race of small people, and it is to be noted that during the early years of life growth 
is more rapid than during the second period. The constitution of the Aetas is closely 
related to their nomadic and savage customs. The muscular system is well developed, 
and the extremities are strong and slender. The skin is more delicate and softer to 
the touch than that of the Papuans of New Guinea, and it has a brownish-black color, 
which without equaling the brilliant black of the peoples of Africa, is more intense 
than that which is seen among the other inhabitants of the Philippines. The head 
is covered with abundant hair, which is crisp and of a sooty black color. Like the 
blacks of New Guinea, they have the face almost round, the lips thick and the medium 
sized nose, flattened and broad at its base. The slight prognathism observable in 
this race is remarkable. The teeth are well formed and the beard is short, The 
forehead is broad* and the eyebrows very pronounced. In the dark and brilliant 
eye one notes an uneasy look, which changes to a sinister gleam in moments of 
excitement, 

Desiring to study Negrito skulls, we attempted on various occasions to obtain them, 
but did not succeed in examining more than rive. These belonged to the tribe in 
the east of Luzon. We do not believe that the data obtained from the study of so 
small a number are sufficient to establish general principles, nevertheless we must 
give them, assigning to them such importance as they actually have. A careful 
examination of these skulls has shown their similarity with skulls of Papuans, and 
we at once include them in the dolico-cephalic variety, for although certain small 
differences are noted they do not affect the general type. In two of them the parie- 
tals formed a marked eminence at their point of union, but this has sometimes 
been found in the hipsisteno-cephalic skulls described by Davis from Papuan geletine. 
The frontal bones were flattened in their lateral portion and the occipital presented 
great convexity. The horizontal cranial index varied from 71.45 to 73.56, and the 
vertical from 72 to 73.6. The average capacity of the live skulls was 1.390 cubic 
centimeters, which demonstrates the fact that the development of the cephalic mass 
is not so scant as some authors have supposed. The arbitrary index did not in any 
of them exceed 86, from which we conclude that the Negritos must he considered 
among the "niesosemas" of Broca, The arrangement of the zygmotic arches places 
these skulls among the criptozygic or skulls witli slightly prominent cheek hones. 
The mandibule differ somewhat from those of the Papuans, the prognathism is not 
marked. Finally the nasal index gives an average of 57.10. 

REPLY TO OPPOSING ARGUMENTS. 

The study of these remains makes it possible for us to combat the conclusions of 
various other ethnologists. The former examined only two skulls, whose antecedents 
were not above suspicion, and concluded that there was sufficient reason for separating 

this race from the other races of Oceania, and B. Virchow. accepting this opinion, 
and supporting himself on the Statements of certain travelers, and on the examination 
of a single skull collected by Scheteling, hastened to change his previous statement 
concerning the characteristics of the Negritos, and said that no relationship could be 

made out between the Philippine peoples and others of Melenasia and Australia. 
On the other hand, this author does not find it impossible to accept the species of 
I ►avis, who admits as aboriginal certain white tribes now extinct. Virchow certainly 

believes that mere suppositions have been carried too far; but even so, wo do notsee 
how certain theories have heen able to make headway Oil the hasis of the study of 
three Or four skulls Which assuredly were not those of true Negritos. In proof of 
this it may be noted that Scheteling dug up at the south of Luzon a skull which, 

according to his own admission, belonged to a tribe with an admixture of Bicol blood. 

As to the skulls studied hy Davis, Virchow himself says that Davis did not give 
concrete information as to their origin. It is seen, then, that authority may be given 
to conclusions derived from Very uncertain data. 



REPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 349 

Furthermore, the German savant falls into errors which are the result of untrue 
statements of certain travelers. Thus we note that in speaking of Negrito crania 
brought from the Philippines since 1872, he does not hesitate to state that they 
belonged to a bracacephalic race, in flat contradiction of what he first wrote. He 
uses the words "ancient and modern Philippine crania," referring to the material 
obtained by Jagor in the caves of Nipanipa pertain to a bracacephalic people which 
have nothing in common with the Negritos, because these are distinguished by the 
small breadth and the great length of the skull, and thus are dolico-cephalic. For the 
rest, on reading what Virchow says of the bracacephalic crania, one understands how 
great is the error of those who believe that they belong to the pure black race of the 
archipelago, which, as Semper has demonstrated, and as we ourselves have proved 
by the material which we examined, are distinguished by the lack of prognathism, 
while those examined by the German professor are, as he says, strongly prognathic. 

The authority of a savant like Virchow naturally carries much weight, but if we 
stop to consider that his fine descriptions are not based on the bones of pure Negritos, 
we shall have to admit that they lack great ethnological value. It is certain that if 
one examines the skulls of the Balugas of Pangasinan and of the other mestizo black 
tribes of Luzon and Mindanao, these differences will be met with, in distinction from 
those collected by Dabis and Scheteling, and employed by Virchow to separate the 
Aetas of the archipelago from other peoples with whom they no doubt have very 
complete resemblance. Perhaps to this circumstance also it is due that the illustrious 
Quatrefarges includes the Aetas in the group of subbracacephalic Negritos, likening 
them to the Mincopies of the Andaman Islands and to the Semangs of Malacca, with 
whom we do not believe that they have any relationship. 

The remains which we have examined, the origin of which is well known to us, 
do not essentially differ from those which Meyer collected in the gulf of Geelirmk 
in New Guinea. As to the differences which separate them from Australian skulls, 
we must state that they are definite when compared with the tribes having straight 
hair, but disappear when comparison is made with the Papuans with curly hair 
which inhabit Australia and whose cranial capacity reaches 1.400 to 1.450 cubic cen- 
timeters. Nor do the small variations which we have indicated in describing crania 
from Luzon bear great significance. In those which come from the Gulf of Astrolabio, 
examined by Virchow himself, such differences are indicated, and they are frequent 
both in the skeleton and in the color of the skin and the facial characteristics in the 
whole Papuan race. 

The error of Scheteling and Davis, as well as that of many other travelers and 
naturalists, lies in accepting for remains of Aetas those of black tribes which in more 
or less remote times have crossed with other peoples of the archipelago. It would 
be well for observers to take this circumstance carefully into account, as Semper has 
long since noted it. 

In general the Aetas, while they do not attain to the morphological perfection of 
other races, are superior to the blacks of Australia and even to many Polynesians. 
Although being compelled to live in the forests and compelled to forego the frequent 
forays in which they engaged in other times, they present to-day indications of the 
fact that they have been dominated by other men. 

So much for their general characteristics. 

DIVISION OF THE RACE. 

We now come to the division of the race. We consider it to be 
divided into two subgroups, namely, Negritos of pure blood, and 
Negritos of mixed origin. In the first group we include the Negritos 
of the province of Bataan, in Luzon, and the Mamanuas. 

THE MAMANUAS. 

As the Jesuit missionaries who worked among them have noted, 
these are the true aborigines of Mindanao and the only Negritos which 
are to be found in the island. They live a nomadic life in the eastern 
Cordillera from Surigao to Tago, inclusive. To-day, thanks to the 
labors of the fathers, many of them have been brought together and 
have founded settlements around Lake Mainit and the Jabonga River, 
where they lead a social life, and are gradually becoming accustomed 



850 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

to work and tociv r il and religious civilization. They are distinguished 
especially by their height, by a certain lack of proportion between 
their limbs, and by their hair. They are short; they are inclined to be 
corpulent, which is the more surprising since their bodies are in gen- 
eral weak. Their arms are long and their legs somewhat short, and 
their hair is crisp and entangled. 

Montano states that these blacks resemble in their physical character- 
istics those which inhabit Mariveles, with only this difference, that the 
latter are not surrounded by pagan races which war upon them, while 
those of Mindanao are continually maltreated by the Manobos. 

THE MESTIZO NEGRITOS OF ALBAY. 

Of the Negritos pertaining to the second subgroup the best known 
are those of the province of Albay. Mantano describes them as 
follows : 

In the southeastern extremity of Luzon, in the province of Albay, near the hot 
springs of Tibig and in the vicinity of Malinao, there dwell Negritos with a mixture 
of Malay blood. Their medium height is 1.5036 meters, nearly that of the Negritos of 
Mariveles, which is 1.4853 meters. 

These Negritos of mixed descent are much stronger and better muscled than the 
pure Negritos of Mariveles; their hair is much less crisp. In certain individuals: it is 
hardly curled. The color of the skin is less dark. Their teeth are not destroyed, 
and it is unusual among them to find a case of irregular implantation. The smallness 
of their size, the nasal fossae dilated transversely and turned forward, the lobule of the 
nose, the extremity of which is gently curved downward, the slight sinuosity of the 
eye slit, the medium development or absolute lack of the sickle-shaped fold cause 
them to appear notably similar to the Negritos of pure blood. The same intermediate 
characteristics are noted in their intellectual development and their customs. 

MANY OTHER SORTS. 

Among the Mestizo Negritos there must be included many other 
tribes whose characteristics are as yet not well understood or wholly 
unknown. These tribes bear various names, as follows: The name 
Negritos is applied to the blacks of pure and mixed blood, who inhabit 
the region from the eastern Cordillera of North Luzon to the Pacific 
coast, as well as to those of North and South Ilocos, Nueva Ecija, 
Tayabas, Ambos, Camarines, and Iloilo, island of Panay. The Pagans, 
who seem to be blacks of pure blood, found in Mindoro and in the 
neighboring islands or tablas Masbate and Ticao, are called Man- 
guianes. 

In Pangasinan and Zambaies the blacks of the mountain regions are 
called Aetas. 

The Buquilesare the Mestizo Negritos inhabiting Zambaies, in Luzon, 
and the vicinity of Baco and Subaan, in Mindoro. They have thick, 
woolly hair, and broad, flat noses. The color of their skin is somewhat 
lighter than that of Nigritos of pure blood. 

In Palawan the blacks are called Igorrotes. They seem to be of 
quite pure blood. They have black skins, crisp hair, well-formed, ath- 
letic bodies, and are some 2,000 in number. 

Finally, the name Attas is applied to the blacks of the eastern Cor- 
dillera, in the province of Cagayan, island of Luzon. Concerning them 
Father Pedro de Medio, a Dominican, makes tin 4 following statement: 

In the Cordillera which traverses t he eastern coast to the Pacific in the province of 
Cagayan there abound Negritos or Attas, who are ordinarily of lower stature than are 
the tndians or Calingae. Their cheek bones are more prominent, and their oolor is 
much darker, although not so black as that of Africans. Their hair is thick and 



REPORT OE THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



351 



woolly both in the case of women and in that of men. The women take delight in 
letting it grow out in all directions from the head without tying it up or causing it to 
hang down the back. It is so curly that it never seems to have more than a quarter 
of its actual length. Being very thick, it forms a sort of rude aureole. The Negritos of 
this region may be subdivided into two classes. The one class leads a completely 
nomadic life; the other forms a quite permanent settlement. 

As to the Negritos of the island of Negros, the Recoleto father, 
Navarro, makes the following statement: 

In the northern and eastern parts of the islands Negritos wander through the moun- 
tains. They have black skins, thick hair, and very weak bodies. In Calatrava there 
are thousands of them. 

They were so numerous in this island at the time of the arrival of 
the Spaniards that the latter changed its original name, "Bugl&s," to 
u Isla de Negros" (Island of Blacks). 

There follows a s} T noptical table, in which will be found set forth 
what we have stated in regard to the Negrito race and its distribution 
throughout the archipelago. 



Race. 


Local name. 


Habitat. 


Pure 


Negritos 


Province of Bataan, island of Luzon. 




Mamanuas 








insula of Surrigao, and the coast mountain chain 
on the Pacific down to Tago. 






Mixed (Mestizo) 


Negritos 


Vicinity of Pilig, Albay Province, southeast Luzon. 














Tayabas. 

North Camarines (mountains of Capalonga, Mambu- 




Negritos 






lag, Paracala, Bacod, etc.). 




Negritos 


Nueva Ecija. 




Negritos 


Iloilo. 




Negritos 


Negros. 




Negritos 


Vicinity of Iriga (South Camarines). 




Negritos 


Albay. 


Pure or mixed (not cer- 


Manguianes 


Mindoro. 


tainly known) . 


Manguianes 


Tablas. 




Manguianes 


Masbate. 




Manguianes 


Ticao. 




, Aetas 


Pangasinan. 




Aetas 


Zambales. 




Buquiles 


Mindoro. 




Buquiles 


Zambales. 




Igorrotes 


Baluan. 




Attas 


Province of Cajoian in Luzon and the eastern moun- 
tain chain down to the Pacific coast. 



CHAPTER II. 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Dr. Montano indicates as physical characteristics common to all 
Indonesian tribes — 

Their considerable height, their muscular development, and the prominence of the 
occipital region, which forms a great contrast to the flattening characteristic of 
the Malayan race in general, and especially of its Philippine representatives. They 
have, furthermore, high foreheads, aquiline noses slightly curved, wavy hair, and 
abundant beard. The color of the skin is quite light; the individuals are clever and 
intelligent. 

With the exception of the Bilanas, of the island of Mindanao, all of the natives 
who are not Negritos or Malays have strong constitutions and enjoy a high degree 
of good health. The old people, as I have been able to prove in various cases, reach 
an advanced age without infirmities. 



352 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

All of the Indonesian tribes, even the most modified types, file their teeth. 1 
have never seen but one tribe adopt the definite and special mode of doing it, how- 
ever; in general, the part of the tooth filed away is considerable. 

Ulceration of the molars is frequent, and more noticeable even than among the 
Bicols. The practice of chewing betel nut and tobacco is widespread among them, 
and even when they are not chewing it, men and women keep it in reserve between 
the upper lip and the incisors. 

Nearly all the tribes pierce the lobules of the ears. At first the opening is small, 
but little by little they make it larger, introducing round pieces of dugong bone, 
using larger and larger pieces until the openings finally reach a diameter of 2 or 3 
centimeters. 

Tattooing is especially common among the tribes near the Gulf of Davao. Moth- 
ers practice it on their children when 5 to 6 years of age for the purpose of placing an 
indelible mark on them, in order that they may know them if they are stolen or 
snatched away from them, as frequently happens. The instrument which they 
employ is not a conical point, but the tip of the blade of a knife. The little incisions 
made by it are always readily recognized. 

The color is given by exposing the skin to the smoke of different resins, at least so 
the Pagans told me, although they never allowed me to witness the operation. 

INDONESIAN TRIBES. 

Passing on now to a consideration of the tribes into which the 
Indonesian race may be divided, we must state that while we accept 
the tribes indicated by Montano, and assign to them almost the same 
characteristics which he gave, we add various others, which, while 
closely related to them, have differences wortlry of consideration. 
Such are the Atas, Mamguangas, Dulanganes, Tagabalies, Subanos, 
Tirurayes, and Calaganes. 

The Samales inhabit the island of this name, situated in the Gulf of 
Davao. They have broad shoulders and are relatively tall, exceeding 
1,680 millimeters; the calf of the leg is hard and prominent; the 
hands and feet are strong without being large; the brachy cephalic 
skull lacks much of being as flat as in the Visayans; the alvelor prog- 
nathism is considerable; the nose is short and prominent, with its lobule 
flattened; the cheek bones are veiy prominent, especially laterally, 
producing a characteristic appearance almost feline, which is accentu- 
ated by rough and quite abundant hair on the upper lip and the chin; 
the long hair is not extremely thick. 

The individuals of this tribe are for the most part Moro-Mandaya 
Mestizo, and number some 2,000. 

The Bagobos inhabit the central and eastern portion of Mount Apo. 
They are tall, reaching a height of 1,750 millimeters; they are strong 
and robust and take advantage of their strength to impose on their 
neighbors. Their profile is effeminate, boys and girls being indistin- 
guishable, and the latter having the vigor of the former; the nose is 
straight and the prognathism is very variable; the sickle-shaped fold 
is usually more pronounced than in the Moros; the transverse axis of 
the eye is straight and does not present the slightest obliqueness from 
below and within. 

The Bagobos number some 1l\O00. 

The Guiangas who inhabit the northern and eastern slopes of Mount 
Apo are in all respect similar to the Bagobos. They are divided 
between the rivers and settlements of Gueuan, Guimalan, Tamugan, 
Saeril, and Biao. They speak a language different from that of the 
other tribes. Guiangas are also found along the river Mala and its 
tributaries. According to the Jesuit Father Gisbert, who did mission- 
ary work among them, they number approximately 6,400. 



Plate V. 







S3* - 



'm^v 









TAGACAOLOS. 
(Living on the Bay of Davao.) 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 353 

The Atas inhabit the regions to the eastward of Mount Apo and to 
the northwest. They are of a superior type, and this is especially 
true of their chiefs, who have aquiline noses, thick beards, and are 
tall. They are very brave and hold their own with the Moros. Their 
probable number is 8,000. 

The Tagacaolos live on the Gulf of Davao from the cove of Casilaran 
down to a little below the river Lais, and also the right side of the 
upper part of the little peninsular which ends in the point called San 
Augustin. They are of good height, and robust. 

The antero-posterio part of the skull is, as a general rule, curved or 
slightly flattened in its posterior portion, and does not present the pro- 
jecting occipital portion which is to be observed in the neighboring 
Bilianes. The prognathism is moderate. The face is long, with pro- 
jecting cheek bones forming an elongated rhomb. The eyes are fre- 
quently obliquely inclined downward and inward, the nose is straight 
and quite prominent, and the lobule recurved downward and backward, 
giving a pleasant expression to the face. The beard is notably thick, 
and appears at a comparatively early age; the color is quite light. 

To the north of the Gulf of Davao, between the rivers Salug, Hijo, 
and Agusan, live the Tagabauas, a mixed tribe, with Bagobo, Manobo, 
and Pagacalo blood. They have the characters of these various peoples, 
sometimes side by side, sometimes confused with each other. Their 
color is frequently dark. They are few in numbers and lead a wretched 
life. 

The Manobos live to the number of some 20,000 in the vast valley 
of the river Agusan, and in smaller numbers to the north of the Bay 
of Malalog, Gulf of Davao, and also on Cape St. Augustine, and finally 
at various points in the interior of the district of Cottabatto. 

It is the most numerous, powerful, and fierce of the Indonesian races. 
It presents two very distinct types. The first is characterized by a tall 
stature of some 1,705 millimeters and by its almost athletic build; its 
forehead is high, nose aquiline, slightly curved. The hair is very 
slightly curled, the beard abundant, and the color of the skin quite 
light. This is the type most similar to the Indonesian or pure race. 

The Manobos of the second class have very dark skins and are not 
nearly so tall. The nose is straight and shorter. The nasal fossas 
are sometimes very narrow and are developed laterally. The antero- 
posterio portion of the skull is more developed than its occipital portion. 

The greater part of the skul T s found in the caves of the Islet Mag- 
bulacao, near Dinigat, those of the cave of Tinaga, on a small island 
quite near Taganaan, and those of two other caves of Cabatuan, on 
Mainet Lake, belong to the Manobo tribe, as well as do the greater 
part of the Christian converts which people the peninsula of Suriga. 

The Mandayas live in the valley of the river Salug and along the 
eastern coast of the island of Mindanao from Tandag to Mati. They 
are the most numerous tribe, with the exception of the Manobos. The 
other pagans consider them the oldest and most illustrious people. 
They are distinguished from the various other Indonesian tribes by 
three characteristics : First, the rectilinear direction of the median 
portion of the antero-posterio cranial curve; second, by the breadth 
of the eye slit, which is almond-shaped. Their eyelashes are very 
dark and long, giving them a peculiar expression. Third, by the 
special color of their skin, which is rather an ashy gray than a yellow 
gray, due, possibly to some admixture of Negrito blood. The nose is 



354 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

straight and prominent; its nasal fossae are not flattened out, although 
they appear so at first glance on account of not being horizontal, but 
oblique from below backward on their lower border. The eyebrows 
are not thick, and the beard is only moderately so, and they almost 
always wear both shaved. The hair is very abundant and grows 
Avhite at an age which does not seem very advanced. Sometimes 
there is noted among them an occipital flattening peculiar to the 
Malays, and also the facial characteristics of the Bilanes. In general, 
their prognathism is little marked. In the external adornment of 
their houses, which are of a special form, they resemble the Dyaks of 
central Borneo. In 1887 Father Pastello estimated their number at 
approximately 30,000. 

The Bilanes live in the vicinity of Lake Buluan, to the west, the 
south, and the east, extending to the end of the little peninsula which 
terminates in Punguian Point. Those of them who live hidden away 
in the mountain peaks of the eastern Cordillera, between Soboy and 
Malalag, are usually the victims and slaves of all the neighboring 
tribes. They seem to be as wretched as the Mamanuas, and even 
inferior to them in intellectual capacity, but the Bilanes of the Saran- 
gani Islands, called Balud and Tumanao, are held in great respect on 
account of their robustness and proverbial valor. No less than 1,500 
persons reside in the two small islands mentioned. 

The Manguangas inhabit the upper part of the Bio Salug and 
extend to the east and west of it. They are of small stature and 
stubby form. Their skulls are notable for their antero-posterior elon- 
gation, and for the flattening of the antero-posterior curve, which, at 
the level of the superior portion of the occipital, is very great. The 
forehead, which is very prominent, forms, with the broad and flat- 
tened face, a diedral angle. The nose is sunken and the nasal fossa 1 
arc very broad. The prognathism is considerable. The lower max- 
illary, which is very prominent, is prolonged forward in the same way 
as the upper, which augments the depression of the median facial 
region. The hair is straight, coarse, and abundant. The beard, 
which is thin, develops at the age of 35 to 40 years. The Manguan- 
gas are warlike, and arc continually quarreling with the Manobos and 
Mandayas of the Angusan,with theMoros of the river Hijo, and with 
the Bagobos of the Apo. They are of good disposition, and in this 
respect resemble the Mandayas. 

The Dulanganes inhabit the forests and mountains extending some 
L5 leagues from Tamontaca toward the south-southeast coast. They 
are so savage and tierce that even the Moros are afraid of them, and 
call them bad people. 

The Tagabalies inhabit the region to the south of Lake Buluan as 
far as Sarangani Gulf. They are an unconquered people, warlike, and 
hostile toward their neighbors, tin 1 Moros. Bilanes, and Manobos. with 
whom they frequently fight. 

The Monteses, or Buguidnoucs. are found in the district of Misaniis. 
and constitute one of the most important tribes of Mindanao. They 
live for the most pari in the valley of Tagoan, in the northern part of 
the island, but are sometimes met with in tin 1 mountains near Point 
Dinata, and even a little before that point in the mountains near Nasipit. 
and extending to the river Odiungan, behind Mount Balatocan, and as 
far as the source of the Polungui and the territory of Dato Mapondo, 
continuing to Lake Lanao and Point Sulanan. 



Plate YL 




^.ik&x.l 



DULANGANES CHILDREN. 
The above were taken in the mountains near Lebac and educated in the Orphanage of Tamontac; 

(Cotabato). 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



355 



Many of them show the influence of Malayan blood, while others 
have Negroid characteristics. In the former the forehead is often high 
and sometimes prominent. The nose is straight and narrow in its 
upper portion and broad in its lower. The eye slit is horizontal or 
slightly inclined, with eyebrows somewhat conspicuous. The face is 
oval and moderately broad with considerable prognathism. They are 
of good height and of graceful and even pleasing proportions. As a 
rule, they are of an approachable character, and are possessed of good 
understanding. Some of them are singularly able and cultured, and 
if one were to judge by their frankness and naturalness in their inter- 
course with others he would not sa}^ that they were pagans. As to 
their number, it is probably approximately 13,000. 

The Subanos occupy nearly the whole of the peninsula of Sebuqui 
up to the vicinity of Zamboanga, and the}^ are neighbors of the Moros 
of Lanao and Illana Bay. Many of the members of this tribe show 
the influence of Mala} r an blood, and the type of those in the north is 
slightly different from that of those in the south. There are among 
them some fine specimens. As a rule, their faces are rather broad, and 
their eyes slightly inclined. Unfortunately the people of this tribe 
have for a very long time been exploited and oppressed by the Moros, 
as a result of which they are a degenerate people. They are long- 
suffering and pacific, and are not accustomed to the use of arms. 

TheTirurayes people have the Dulanganes for neighbors on the south, 
and inhabit the region from the lower branch of the Rio Grande down 
to a little below the Trampadidu. On the coast, and especially in the 
interior or eastern portion of their territory, they come in contact 
with the Moros called Maguindanaos, who have cowed them and hold 
them under their domination. Their number may be some 10,000. 

The Cataganes live in part on the river Digos. They are altogether 
some 300. The} T do not speak the Sulu language, nor do they profess 
Mohammedanism. They are pagans, like the other pagans of the 
Gulf of Davao. Their average stature is 1.665 meters. 

The data which we have set forth will be found summed up in the 
following ethnological table: 



Local name. 



Habitat. 



Pure or nearly pure 

Bagobos 

Guiangas 

Atas 

Tagacaolos 

Manobos 

Mandayas 

Calaganes 

Mixed: 

Samales 

Tagabauas 

Bilanes 

Manguangas ... 
Dulanganes 

Tagabelies 

Monteses 

Subanos 

Tiruraves 



The foothills east and south of the volcano Apo. 

The northeast slopes of Apo, and the steep slopes near Davao. 

The regions west and northwest of Mount Apo. 

The Gulf of Davao, from Malalag to the river Lais, and in the northern 
part of the peninsula of Cape San Augustin. 

Very numerous in the valley of the river Agusan, in much smaller num- 
bers to the north of the Bay of Malalag, Gulf of Davao, on Cape San 
Augustin, and in the district of Cottabato. 

Valley of the river Salug, and the eastern coast of the island of Min- 
danao, from Tandag to Mati. 

Cove of Casilaran, Gulf of Davao. 

Island of the same name in the Gulf of Davao. 

To the northward of the Gulf of Davao. 

Two of the Sarangani Islands, and the eastern shores of Lake Buluan. 

Branches of the river Salug to the north of the Gulf of Davao. 

The forests and mountains distant some 15 leagues from Tamontaca 

toward the south-southwest coast. 
Western shores of Lake Buluan. 
In the northern part of Mindanao, in the region between Point Diuata, 

Point Sulauan, and the sources of the river Pulangui. 
Nearly the whole of Sibuguey Peninsula. 
From the lower branch of the Rio Grande to the river Trampadidu. 



356 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

CHAPTER III. 

MORE IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS. 

The Maiayan race in the Philippines is very difficult to characterize, 
because it is at present not found in any part of the archipelago in a 
pure state, but is always more or less mixed with other races. On the 
whole, its principal characteristics seem to be as follows : 

The Malays are not so tall as are the Indonesians. Their skin is of 
a darker color. The nose is shorter and straighter. The nasal fossae 
are longer and broader. The antero-posterio curve of the skull is 
more developed in its occipital region. The eyes are black and bril- 
liant, with thick, curved eyebrows and long eyelashes. The mouth is 
in general from medium to large size and thick lipped. The hair is 
black, thick, and straight ; it is coarse and abundant. The Malays 
have their muscles and legs delicate, and their feet are small. 

DIVISIONS OF THE RACE. 

In spite of the numerous varieties of the MaLoyan race, we agree with 
Dr. Montano in reducing them to three sub races, under which we 
include the numerous tribes. The Malays in whose veins there is a 
certain amount of Negrito blood belong to the first subrace. To the 
second we assign the Malays who show marked indications of Chinese 
blood. Finally, Ave include under the third subrace the Malays who 
show indication of possessing Arabic or Indonesian blood. 

FIRST SUBRACE. 

MALAY NEGRITOS. 

This subrace is the more numerous of the three. Dr. Montano, who 
has studied it in the case of the Atiis of Ambos Camarines, in southern 
Luzon, makes the following statement concerning it: 

In the forests of the steep Cordillera of southeastern Luzon, which extends through 
the provinces of Tayahas, Ambos Camarines, and Albay, there dwells a race of very 
mixed origin, which the other natives call by the nameAtas (refugees or pagans) , 
without | >aying any attention to the race to which they belong. Among these groups 
of people not as yet subdued, many of whom live a nomadic life and who inhabit the 
inaccessible region above mentioned, many owe their origin to Indians who have tied 
if o ii their towns on account of crimes. 

In the provinces above mentioned the A Pis have a great reputation for strength and 
Eerocitv,and apparently with only too good reasons. The two Atas whom I saw were 
undoubtedly Indians with a large amount of the Negrito blood. 

These two individuals were well muscled, and their large black eyes gave an 
expression of cautious ferocity. The eye slit was slightly oblique and greatly elon- 
gated, the sickle-shaped fold very well developed. In my description I place them 
alter the tribes of Malacca, for they, like this people, seem to form a combination 
between the true Negrito mestizo and the Malays. The Atas of Camarines and the 
adjacent provinces, causing great trouble as they do by their robberies, are destined 
to disappear even more promptly than the Negritos themselves. 

The Irayas inhabit (he banks of the river Huron and the eastern 
slopes of the Sierra Madre on the side of the provinces of Nneva 
Viscaya, [sabela, and Cagayan de Luzon. 

Thi It, idjKn,, s are contiguous on the south with the [gorrotes of Ben- 
guet, on the north with the Guinaanes, and on the west with Busaos. 



Plate VII. 




TIRURAYES. 
Types of those of the mountains near the Rio Grande. 



p c— vol 3—01 35 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION* 357 

They are of low stature, but well formed. The nose is coarse and 
very broad, the eyes black and round. 

The Gaddanes dwell to the northward of the Igugaos, from the river 
Magat to the vicinity of the river Chico of Cagayan de Luzon. The 
color of their skin is very dark. 

The Ilongotes inhabit the rough mountain side of South Caraballo, 
on the northern limit of the province of Nueva Ecija. They are also 
to be found in Caraballo de Baler, and in Cassiguran, in the district of 
Principe. They are well proportioned, robust, tall, and strong. Their 
color is dark. 

The Balugas inhabit the eastern Cordillera of Nueva Ecija and the 
mountains bordering upon Tarlac and Pampanga. They also extend 
through the heights of Mauban, through certain regions in Tayabas, 
through the Cordillera of Zambales, and the eastern mountains of the 
two Ilocos provinces. 

The Dumangas are confined to the region of the Pacific coast from 
Baler and Cassiguran to the northward. They may also be met with 
on the eastern slope of the Grand Cordillera. 

The Tbilaos and Italones. — The people of these two tribes are neigh- 
bors of the Ilongotes, from whom they differ but little. It may well 
be that in all three tribes there is some Indonesian or other blood. 

The Manguianes (Mangy nas). — By this name it is customary to 
indicate various pagans in the island of Mindoro. Different authors 
have applied the name to the Negritos, to the Malay Negritos, as well as 
to the Malay Chinese and the Malay Caucasians, all of which peoples 
inhabit this island. The Manguianes here referred to dwell between 
Abra, Hog, and Pinamalayan. The color of their bodies is rather 
dark. Their hair is loose. They have prominent cheek bones and 
flattened foreheads. ' The nose is somewhat elongated. 

We will now consider various other tribes of the island of Mindoro. 
On the borders of Socol and Bulalacao there is a tribe called Man- 
guianes. In the plains of the above-mentioned regions live the Bangot 
tribe. In the foothills of the mountains of Socol and Bulalacao dwell 
the Buquiles, while the Beribes inhabit the peaks. In Pinamalayan 
the} 7 call those who inhabit the coasts Bongo ts; those of the plains, 
Buquiles; those of the foothills, Tadianan; and those of the peaks, 
Durugnum or Buctulan; those of the high ground of Naujan are called 
Tiron. Also, in Mangarin they apply the name Buquiles to those 
who inhabit the shores, Lactan to those of the plains, Manguianes to 
those of the foothills, and Baranganes to those of the mountains. 

In the island of Tablas there are also so-called Manguianes, said to 
resemble those of Mindoro. 

What we have just said may, perhaps, serve as a base for someone 
to clear up this whole matter. There are those who do not admit any 
such variety of peoples in Mindoro. 

The Isinayes inhabit various parts of the island of Panay. 

The Guinaanes, or Guinanes, are the Malay Negritos of the province 
of Abra. 

The Tinguianes live to the westward of them. To the eastward the} 7 
are bounded by the crests of Caraballo. To the south are the Yteta- 
paanes, and to the north the Apayaos. 

The Allabanes are a tribe inhabiting the island of Panay. Nothing 
is known concerning them. 



358 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

The Apayaos live to the north of the Guinaanes from North Ilocos 
to the highest part of the Grand Cordillera. They also occur on the 
eastern slopes of the same mountain chain on the side of the province 
of Cagayan. 

The Catatangis are another unknown tribe of the island of Pana} T . 

The Adaugtas dwell in the extreme northern portion of the Cor- 
dillera of the Caraballos in the province of North Ilocos. 

The Abunlon constitute another Malay-Negrito tribe of the Zam- 
bales Mountains. 

The Calaitas, or Oalaguas, inhabit the heights in the neighborhood of 
Malaueg and the ravines of the river Chico, in the region of Itaves, 
province of Cagayan de Luzon. 

The Quianganes are a tribe of Malay Negritos inhabiting the 
mountains of Nueva Vizcaya. 

The Calingas.- — We borrow a description of this tribe from a Domin- 
ican monk who makes the following statement concerning them : 

There are but few of them in the Cordillera which traverses the eastern portion of 
the province of Cagayan toward the Pacific, but they are numerous in the mountains 
of the Central Cordillera. They are much more numerous than the Negritos in this 
region. The bulk of their large settlements are found in a portion of the Central 
Cordillera, more than 36 miles long, between the town of Malalagueg and the coast 
of the China Sea and Pamplona, and Abulug, which is where their settlements end. 
They live in a valley suitable for cultivation. They are ferocious assassins. The 
Calinga type is very similar to the Indians, but a little whiter. Some of them are 
strong and robust, with very regular and delicate features, although they do not 
equal Europeans. 

They live to the north of the Calauas in the Cordillera which runs 
from southwest to northeast between the Rio Grande de Cagayan and 
the Abulug or Apayao. 

The Buquiles are the Malay Negritos of the island of Mindoro, who 
inhabit the regions near Bacao, which is a dependency of Calapan, 
the capital of the island. They are also to be met with along the 
Subaan River, which empties on the north coast. 

The Aripas are a tribe living in the vicinity of Tubang, situated 
among the rough mountains in the center of the province of Cagayan 
de Luzon. 

The Igorrotes are the Malay Negritos of Mount Iriga, Anibos Cama- 
rines. They also occur in the provinces of Abra, Pangasinan, Nueva 
Viscaya, Zambales, and Pampanga. 

The Tagba/n/ucLS are without doubt a Malay -Negrito tribe. They live 
wandering about the multitudes of little islands between Palawan and 
the ( lalamianes. They are also found at Bahile and Bintuan on the Bay 
of LTrugan in the western part of Palawan, as well as in the islands 
Maitiguid and the islands Linapacan and Dicabaito, to the south of 
Culion. 

The Tcmdolcmos inhabit the island of Palawan. As their name indi- 
cates, they live on the capes along the shore of the east coast from 
Point Diente to Point Tularen. This tribe isderived from the Igorrotes, 
and is warlike. The Tandolanos poison their darts with a venom so 
active thai it causes immediate death. 

The TmiUcmos live in Babuyan, to the north of Bahia Honda, in the 
eastern pari of Palawan. There Is no available information as to their 
origin or customs. 

The BulalawMmoe inhabit Palawan and the Calainianos group. They 
arc of a dark citron color. The nose is somewhat aquiline. The hair 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



359 



is somewhat crisp, and there is a slight beard. They are of delicate 
physique. In Masbate and Ticao there are also Bululacaunos similar 
to those of Palawan. 

The Buries. — The people of this tribe live in the province of Abra, 
in the northern part of the Cordillera, which runs from the center of 
the province of South Ilocos to the western limit of Nueva Vizcaya, 
traversing the center of Abra. The Buries are more robust and vigor- 
ous than the Igorrotes and have the custom of tattooing coats of mail 
on their bodies and twining serpents on their arms and legs. They 
are more pacific and humane than their neighbors, and they display 
notable industry in the manufacture of certain arms which find a mar- 
ket outside of their country. They also occur in the district of 
Lepanto, on the western slopes of the Caraballos. 

The Busaos are another tribe of the province of Abra. They dwell 
in the iron-producing mountains of Siguey, near the town of Benang. 
They tattoo themselves, but only on the arms, where they fashion 
flowers of various sorts. They often wear in their ears great copper 
rings, and still more f requently heavy pieces of wood. They cover the 
crown of the head with a cap of wood or rattan, sometimes adorned 
with feathers. They are of a peaceable and industrious disposition, 
and take good care of their little plantations. The following synop- 
tical table gives a resume of what has been said concerning the Mala} r - 
Negrito subrace: 

Race. — Malayan with Negrito blood. 



Local name. 


Habitat. 


Attas 


The forests of South Camarines. 




Banks of the river Ilaron, eastern slopes of Sierra Madre, 

on the side of Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela, and Cagayan. 
To the east of the Busaos, bounded on the south bv the 




Gaddanes 


Igorroties of Benguet and on the north by the Guin- 
aanes. 
From the river Madet to the river Chico of Cagavan. 




They live to the north of the Ifugoas. 
South Caraballo and Caraballo of Baler, Casiguran in the 

district of Principe. 
Eastern Cordillera of Nueva Ecija, Tavabas, and Zam- 




Dumagas 


bales, eastern mountains of the two Ilocos provinces. 
From Baler and Casiguran to the north coast of the Pa- 


Ibilaos 


cific side. 
Neighbors of the Ilongotes. 


Manguianes 


Mindoro between Abra, Ilog, and Pinamalavan. 


Isinayes 


Panav. 










Apayaos 


From North Ilocos to the highest part of the Grand Cor- 




dillera. 


Adaugtas 


The extreme north of the Cordillera of the Western 


Abunlon 


Caraballos. 
Zambales. 


Calauas 


Malaueg — ravines of the river Chico on the side of 


Quianganes 


Haves. 
Nueva Vizcaya. 


Calingas 


To the north of the Calauas, between the Rio Grande of 


Buquil 


Cagayan and the Abulog or Apayao. 
Mindoro, in the neighborhood of Bacoo and Subaan. 


Aripas 


Neighborhood of Tabang. 


Igorrotes 


Mount Irriga, provinces of South Camarines, Abra, Pan- 


Tagbanuas 


gasiinan, Nueva Vizcaya, Zambales, Pamoanga, etc. 
Islands from Palawan to' the Calamianes. 


Tandolanos 


Western coast of Palawan. 


Tinitianos 


Eastern part of Palawan. 


Bulalacaunos 


North of Palawan and Calamianes group. 


Buries 


Western slope of the Eastern Caraballos, district of Le- 


Busaos 


panto. 
Near Benang to the north of the Buries. 







360 EEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



SECOND SUBRACE. 



THE MALAY-CHINESE. 



We term the people of the second sub race Malay-Chinese not 
because these two types are the only ones which appear in them, but 
because they predominate and are found in almost all the tribes here 
placed. 

Since the immigration of Chinese has always been limited to men, 
it will be readily understood that there was bound to be frequent cross- 
ing with the natives, and the mestizos resulting from such unions are 
very numerous. Furthermore, in the crossing of the Chinese with 
the Indians the Chinese blood is so potent that a small propor- 
tion suffices to produce a wide variation from the primitive type of 
native. 

The admixture of Chinese blood, therefore, is much more important 
than that of Indonesian blood. It must have begun long before the 
arrival of the Spaniards, and it is still ceaselessly augmented. If this 
should continue it might eventually result that it would take the place 
of the Malayan blood. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BICOLS AND TAGALOGS. 

These two peoples have well nigh the same characteristics. Their 
original Mala}^an type is profoundly modified by the influence of vari- 
ous crossing, which probably first took place in remote times 
and which has continued with more or less frequenc}^ up to the 
present da}^. 

The first of these crossings — and the most important are those which 
took place in ancient times — must have been with the Negritos, a fact 
which is still clearly proved in certain individuals by the smallness of 
their size, by their curling or undulating hair, and by the darker color 
of their skins. 

The crossing with Indonesian tribes has not left well-marked indica- 
tions. It manifests itself only by the lighter color of the skin in a few 
individuals. 

The Chinese Indian is revealed by his increased height, the elevation 
of his skull, the obliqueness of his eyes, and the elongation of his 
extremities. 

Finally, the peoples which we are about to discuss have a small 
amount of Spanish blood. This crossing, although due to a small num- 
ber of individuals, is not without importance, for it has been going oil 
constantly for three centuries. White blood is detected especially 
through a type of nose intermediate between two types as distinct as 
those of the European and Malay. 

From what has just been said it will be evident how greatly the 
type may vary among these peoples. In the two southern provinces 
of Luzon, for example — Al bay and Sorsogon — the fundamental Malay 
type oscillates perpetually between the four types just mentioned, but 
with greater frequency toward the Chinese type. All of the char- 
acteristics except the form of the skull vary under these diverse 
influences. 

The posterior region of the skull is frequently flattened, as if cut 
with an ax, and this flattening is so marked that it is observable even 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 361 

in the women when they wear their long and thick hair hanging down 
their backs. 

It may well be asked whether this flattening of the occipital regions 
is hereditary or is the effect of some artificial procedure. 

It is undoubtedly natural. One may enter the houses of the Indians 
at any time and never find any trace of artificial flattening operation. 
Furthermore, this flattening is to be noted in Spanish mestizos, whose 
parents take great care to keep them from usages and practices which 
might serve to make more conspicuous the characteristics due to 
native blood. 

As for the region inhabited by the peoples we have just described, 
the Bicols may be found in Sorsogon, Albay, Ambos, Camarines, and 
a part of Tayabas. 

The Tagalogs are gathered about Manila in some of the most highly 
civilized provinces of the Philippines, to the number of about 1,500,000. 
Some of them imitate the manners and customs of the Europeans. 

THE VISAYANS. 

The Visa} T ans also belong to this group. They are spread to the 
number of 2,500,000 over the group of islands bearing the same name, 
and since very early times have been establishing themselves on the 
coast of Mindanao, where they have formed numerous colonies. Don 
Jose de Lacalle characterizes them as follows: 

One's attention is immediately attracted by the uniformity of the type, which does 
not present the modifications so noteworthy in the case of the inhabitants of the 
island of Luzon. This circumstance noted by Jagor in the provinces of Samar and 
Leyte is readily proved to hold true elsewhere. The measurements of the skull, the 
structure of the organs, and the general external aspect of these people maintain a 
very striking resemblance and relationship. That diversity of type which is else- 
where so strongly marked is not to be seen among the Yisayans. The color of the 
skin is reddish yellow, and lighter than that of the Tagalogs. The hair is black, but 
not so coarse as with the latter people. The eyes, small and animated, are slightly 
oblique. The beard is inconspicuous and the cheek bones are moderately prominent. 

The cephalic index varied in fourteen skulls from 80 to 81.10. They are therefore 
subbrachycephalic. The parietals are somewhat flattened laterally, and the frontal 
is almost plain. The zygomatic arches are strongly curved. The forehead lower espina 
nasal is weakly developed, as is the menton. The nasal index gave an average fig- 
ure of approximately 52. The arrangement of the zygomatic arches gives to the face 
of the Yisayans a greater breadth than would correspond to the remaining lateral 
measurements, which are not so great as those observed in skulls from Luzon. The 
index of the orbit approximates that which we have seen in the inhabitants of the 
latter island, and the bimaler diameter is slightly less. 

The general organization is well developed, and the superior robustness or vigor of 
this tribe is undoubted. 

In this race the physical and moral predominance of the women is particularly 
notable. Their form is symmetrical and harmonious throughout. 

In general, it may be said that the Yisayans are no more highly civi- 
lized than the Indians already described, but they are more robust, and 
some of them, especially those of Bohol, have the reputation of having 
fought the Moro pirates and defeated them. 

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS AND OTHER TRIBES. 

We take from the same author certain other data which may be con- 
sidered common to the tribes of which we shall speak later and to 
those already mentioned. These people have in general the character- 
istics of a highly lymphatic temperament. Climatalogical influences 

p c— vol 3—01 36 



362 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

on the one hand and prevailing customs on the other strongly favor its 
predominance. The hepatic system becomes strongly developed, hence 
the frequency of inflammation and other gastrohepatic affections. 
This does not hold for the nervous system, which, in spite of what cer- 
tain authors have said, gives evidence of normal development in the 
native. The physiological senses are keen, and sight and smell are 
exquisitely sensitive. 

They agree also, although with less uniformity, in the following 
external characteristics: The skin, which is slightly rough and coarse, 
does not have the same color in different individuals. In general it is 
a dark copper color with various tones and shades, from the dull reddish 
of certain Polynesians to the light yellowish of the Asiatic people. 
The color is darker among the inhabitants of the north of Luzon than 
among the Bicols, who live in the south. The dark color predominates 
among women, and one notices that it is characteristic of those who 
are strongest and best formed. 

The head is covered with coarse, black hair, which is straight and 
extremely strong and long. Over the rest of the skin the lack of hair 
is noteworthy, and it is exceptional to see a man with indications of a 
beard. 

The nose shows very different forms in different individuals. The 
forehead is large, broad, and flattened, with the frontal elevations but 
slightly marked. The superciliary arches are more developed than 
in the Malay race. The eyes are large and black, and they sometimes 
show a slight obliqueness. 

Pampangos, Pangasinans, and Ilocanos. — According to Montano 
"these individuals owe their height to Indonesian blood, which, it 
would seem, may be observed among various independent or recently 
subdued tribes in the center or the northern half of Luzon." 

The Cvma/rrones. — Ity this name are known the pagans who inhabit 
the peninsula of Camarines, in the island of Luzon. It would seem 
that they are not all of the same origin. 

The Tinguidnes, or Bowlegs, arc continuous on the north and west 
with the Busaos. They live near South Ilocos, in the cordillera of 
Tila, which is in the district of Lepanto. They arc also found through- 
out the greater part of the province of Abra. Their color is quite 
light. They ;uc a pacific people. 

The Tfhigaos inhabit the Cordillera of the eastern Caraballos in the 
slopes which lie toward Nueva Yizcaya. on the left bank of the Rio 
Magat, and the missions of Ituy. They an 4 a bloodthirsty lot, and 
are fond of assaulting travelers in order to rob and kill them. It is 
their habit to put a rattan ring j n the ear for each person that they 
murder. 

The Catalangcmes Live along the eastern branch of the River Ilagan. 
in the province of Isabela de Luzon. 

The Manguicmes inhabit the island of Mindoro to the south of the 
River Pinamalayan, which empties into the sea upon the eastern coast 
of the island. They have a black eye. Roman nose, and conspicuous 
check bones. Their forehead is fattened. Their skins are olive col- 
ored. They are in the habit of wearing a long tress of hair, hanging 
down from the back part of the head after the fashion of the Chinese, 
the rest of their hair being elose cut or shaven. They are industrious 

and less needy than the other wild tribes of the island. 



Plate XIII. 




MORO DATO AND SONS. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 363 

THIRD SUBRACE. 

THE MALAY MOHAMMEDANS. 

We now come to the third and last subrace, which we consider to be 
divided into eight tribes, whose distinctive characteristics will be dis- 
cussed later. We will first consider certain characteristics common to 
them all. 

The Moros are well developed and are of medium height. The skin 
is of a dark copper color, more pronounced among the inhabitants of 
the interior. Straight, black, and very abundant hair covers the head 
and conceals a part of the forehead. Their small, black, and animated 
eyes show their suspicious character and evil disposition. The cephalic 
index, according to the data of Don Jose de Lacalle, varies from 81 to 
81.60. Their skulls are distinguished by the constant prominence of 
the f rontals, and by their prognathism, which attains to 69°. The nose 
is broad, but not flattened. The facial angle does not pass 84°, and 
frequently does not reach this figure. When the Moro conquest was 
checked by the Spaniards in its movement toward the north, the 
extreme points which it was agreed they should occupy were the island 
of Palawan, the third meridian of the island of Mindanao, and, curi- 
ously, the west coast of the same island. Until 1860, in which year 
eighteen steam gunboats reached the archipelago, it was not possible to 
break their indomitable pride and to establish safe communication 
throughout the Mindoro Sea. Later on, thanks to various military 
operations, they were brought within the limits above outlined. 

MOROS OF SULU. 

The island of Sulu, at the center of the archipelago bearing the 
same name, has always been the political, religious, and commercial 
center of all the Moros, and even to-day, in spite of the fact that 
Spain had occupied the island since 1876, and has imposed her pro- 
tection upon the Sultan, nevertheless all the other sultans and datos 
of the region indicated respect him, at least outwardly. 

The type of the Malays of Sulu has been modified by two distinct 
and opposite foreign elements, namely, the native of the Philippine 
Islands and the Arab. 

Until within a few years the Moros in general, and the natives of 
Sulu in particular, practiced continual piracy along the Philippine 
coasts, including even those of Luzon. If they had kept for them- 
selves the slaves which they captured, the population of the island of 
Sulu would to-day be chiefly formed of a mixture of the native Phil- 
ippine peoples, but the pirates sold a great part of the slaves that 
they took. 

Although they bear a certain amount of relationship to the Indian, 
nevertheless the Sulu natives are readily distinguished from them by 
various marks and characteristics. For one thing, they are more 
robust, although of lower stature than the Bicols. This is doubtless 
due to the sort of life they lead, which is more full of adventure and 
activity than is that of the peaceable Bicols. The lower stature of the 
Sulu natives is due to the fact that they have less Chinese blood in 
their veins, not because the Chinese do not exist in the Sulus, but 
because they are much less numerous than in Luzon and find more 



364 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

difficulty in getting native women to many them. The Sulu natives 
are further distinguished from the Indians by their lack of prominent 
cheek bones and their smaller alveolal and dental prognatism. Their 
face is less flattened and the nose is more prominent. The sickle- 
shaped fold is much less pronounced and sometimes lacking. The 
transverse axis of the eye slit is less oblique with the Moros than with 
the Indians. The eye opening is almond shape and much rounder 
than with the Indians and Chinese. The hair is much finer, and its 
cross section is kidney-shaped and not triangular. The e} T ebrows are 
not thick. The color of the skin is frequently lighter than with the 
Indian and is not so much inclined to be yellow or ashy gray. They 
file the incisors and canine teeth, sometimes on their front face and 
sometimes on their lower border. 

The Arabic element has modified the Sulu type in a much smaller 
degree. The natives of that race, being in insignificant numbers, would 
have left no trace of their presence in the archipelago had it not been 
that most of them occupied the highest posts, which are the only ones 
that among them make polygamy possible. Individuals who show 
Arabic characteristics more or less plainly are not uncommon, and 
some of them even reproduce the original type with all fidelity. An 
example is one of the panditas, or Sulu priests, the head of one of the 
oldest families of the island. 

The Sulu Moros occupy the island of Sulu to the numbei of some 
27,000. In Tawitawi there are about 13,500. They also inhabit the 
multitude of small islands adjacent to those just mentioned. 

MOROS OF THE RIO GRANDE, LANAO LAKE, AND ILLANA BAY. 

These Moros occupy, in addition to the west coast from Punta 
Flechas to the Trampadidu River, a great extent of territory around 
the Lakes Lanao, Liguasan, and the north shore of Lake Baluan. They 
are noteworthy for their large numbers, which, according to the Jesuit 
missionaries, attain to a total of 200,000. They show bravery and 
ferocity in their frequent excursions to rob and enslave the pagans in 
their vicinity, i. e., the Subanos, Tirura} T es, Bilanes, Atas, and Mon- 
teses. For this reason they have long enjoyed, like the natives of 
Sulu, the reputation of being warlike, bold, and rapacious. Never- 
theless, Father Pastells 1 insists that — 

On the day when missionaries succeed in planting the cross among these pagans, 
who arc surrounded by Moros, the latter will lack for slaves to cultivate the soil for 
them, dress them, build their houses for them, and serve them as a means of luxury 
and commerce, and will find themselves compelled to change the campilan and the 
kria t'<»r the plow, and the arrogant ferocity of the warrior and pirate for the peace- 
ableness of the man who sees himself compelled to gain his bread by the sweat of 
his brow. 

As for their characteristics, it may be said in general of all these 
Moros thai they are of medium or small stature, and for the most part 
weak-limbed, hut their forms are well proportioned it}) to 15 or 20 
years of age. Their nose is small and flattened. The mouth is small 
and the lips are thin. The color of the skin is dark, with a certain 
yellowish tone. The cephalic angle Is lower than with the Sulu 
natives, and its height greater than with them, both characteristics 

1 See appendix to Vol. V I of the Letters of the Fathers of the Company of Jesus 
belonging to the Philippine Mission, p. :vh>. 



\ 



Plate XV. 




MORO BOYS. 
Living near river Matiao, east coast of Bay of Davao. 



N^ 



Plate XVI. 




MOROS OF THE INTERIOR (BAY OF DAVAO). 
(Chief family of the new Christian town of Alberique.) 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



365 



being undoubtedly due to the frequent and long-continued crossing of 
these Moros with Indonesian tribes. It should be noted well that 
these characteristics are not fixed throughout the whole region which 
these Moros occupy, but are general or common. The type varies 
considerably at different points. 



MOROS OF THE GULF OF DAVAO. 



The Moros of this tribe dwell in part near Mayo Gulf and in part 
along the Gulf of Davao, where they occupy a portion of the coast 
region and the mouths of the rivers. They are not formidable, 
because they are few in numbers and isolated. 

These Moros differ from those of Sulu on account of their Indonesian 
blood, due to marriage with women bought or stolen from the tribes 
of the interior. This admixture of Indonesian blood is, according to 
Montano, the cause for the falling of the cephalic index from 84.67 to 
81.94, and for the increase in their height to 1.573 meters in place of 
1.526 meters, which is the average height of the Sulu natives. They 
seem to form a transition between the Mala}^s of the southern Philip- 
pines and the Indonesians of Mindanao. 



OTHER TRIBES. 



The name Sanguiles is applied to those who occupy a strip along the 
southern coast of Mindanao from Culut to the Gulf of Sarangani, 
inclusive. Those who inhabit the little island of Olutanga, near the 
extremity of the small peninsula which separates the gulfs of Sibugu}^ 
and Dumanquilas, are called Lutangas. Those who are found in small 
groups along the shore of the Gulf of Sibuguy are known as Calibu- 
ganes. The Samales-Lauts inhabit the coast region of Basilan, while 
the Yacanes occupy the interior of that island. Those who are to be 
found on both coasts of southern Palawan are the Sulu-Moros (Jolo- 
anos). 

The total number of Moros in the Philippine Archipelago is estimated 
by the Jesuits to be about 350,000. 

In the table which follows there will be found summed up the more 
important facts as to the Malay-Chinese and the Malay-Mohammedans: 



Kace. 


Local name. 


Habitat. 


Malayan with Chinese 
blood. 








Manila and the center of Luzon. 






Visavan Islands and some towns on the coast of 






Mindanao. 
Pampanga. 
Pangasinan. 
North and south Ilocos. 




Pangasinanes 






South Camarines, Isarog Mountain. 






The Cordillera of Tila, district of Lepanto, and in the 






province of Abra. 
Missions of Ituv and Panigui; eastern Caraballos. 






Eastern branch of the river Ilagan. 






Mindoro to the south of Pinamalavan and in the 






island of Sibuyan. 
The Sulu Archipelago and part of Palawan. 
The Rio Grande, Lanao Lake, and Illana Bay. 




do 




do 


The vicinity of the gulfs of Mayo and Davao. 
Coast of southern Mindanao and Sarangani Gulf. 








Lutangas 


The little island of Olutanga. 
The Gulf of Sibugney. 
The coast of Basilan Island. 




Samales-Lauts 









PART III 



USAGES AND CUSTOMS OF THE PHILIPPINE 

PEOPLES. 



CUSTOMS OF THE MANDAYAS. 

The Mandayas are as a rule docile, hospitable, and inclined to social 
intercourse. They govern themselves after the fashion of the civi- 
lized Indian, having gobernadorcillo, headmen, lieutenants, justices, and 
bailiffs. He who has most distinguished himself in the settlement on 
account of his influence is usually the petty king, whom all obe} r and 
consult, including the gobernadorcillo and headmen. Commonly it is 
the ambition of relatives to live near each other, and this is the reason 
that there are preserved among them fixed traditions, of which a legal 
and penal code form a part. They cherish this code with great care. 

They are strongly attached to their idolatrous rites. They believe 
in two good principles, father and son, and in two evil ones, husband 
and wife. 

The wildest among them sometimes employ human sacrifices, which 
they carry out with extraordinary cruelty. Sacrifices of animals are 
common throughout the tribe, and various usages and ceremonies ap- 
pear in the carrying of them out. 

The most important and solemn sacrifice for them is the Balflic. In 
order to celebrate it they get together ten or twelve dancers or more, 
according to the degree of splendor which they wish to give to the 
feast, and having prepared beforehand the little altar of the diuata in 
front. of the house of the man who is paying the costs of the celebra- 
tion, the owner of it comes out with a big hog and gives it to the dan- 
cers before an assemblage of from one to two hundred invited guests. 
When the hog has been placed on the altar, the richly dressed dancers 
immediately surround it, Later the Mandayas play on the tambourine 
theipieces sacred to the diuatas, while the dancers follow the time with 
their feet, dancing around the altar and singing at the same time the 
Miniinsad; also, trembling from foot to head and inclining themselves 
from one side to the other, they describe with their revolutions vari- 
OU8« semicircles. They raise the right hand to the sun or moon, accord- 
ing as it is day or night, entreating according to the desire of the one 
who has caused that Balilic to be celebrated. Almost immediately the 
head dancer separates from the others and wounds with her balarao (a 
SOrl of little dagger) the hog placed on the altar: and she is the first 
who participates in the sacrifice. Applying 1km- mouth to the wound 
she sucks and drinks the blood of the animal, which is still alive, and 
in imitation of her the others do the same. If the operation causes 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 367 

nausea to some of them, it is a bad dance. Later they return to their 
place, repeat the dance, tremble, finally sit down, and talk with Man- 
silatan, who, they say, has come down from heaven to inspire them with 
that which they immediately prophesy. It is often the announcement 
of a good harvest, or the curing of some infirmity, or some triumph 
over enemies, so the Balilic is concluded. The hog is dressed, a part 
of it is offered to the idol, and the function is concluded with a general 
drunk. 

They make numerous and frequent sacrifices, after the fashion of 
the one just described. 

They have many superstitions, some of which are very curious. To 
enumerate them all would be a long undertaking. When there is an 
eclipse, they believe that a snake is eating the sun or the moon, and 
in order to frighten it so that there may not be perpetual darkness 
they shout, raising a tremendous outcry, and strike blows upon various 
objects. The}^ follow the same procedure when there is an earthquake, 
in order to pacify the immense crocodile which causes it by moving 
about in the center of the earth. 

They inter their dead in the forests in the cavities of the cliffs, 
together with their arms and shields and a pot of boiled rice, in order 
that they may have food and weapons to defend themselves during 
their journey. 

Among the settlements whose inhabitants are most superstitious in 
front of each house is found an idol, with an altar full of offerings. 
As a rule all of them place inside of their houses, at a suitable height 
and under a red canopy, a small idol, surrounded by fruit of the betal 
palm. Hanging from its neck is a small sackful of rice. Every even- 
ing while dinner is being prepared it is their habit to play upon certain 
instruments, and while dancing about the room to sing the following 
words: "Situated between the good and the ill, we entreat the Libera- 
tor to descend from heaven to-day for our good." 

During the watches of the night the parents give to their children 
various curious bits of advice concerning the hechicara (witch), the 
giant, and the dwarf, and the old women tell their stories. 

The men wear a sort of loose trousers, and a short jacket opened 
down the front of the breast. The women wear the jabol for a skirt, 
and a short waist or jacket like the men. Both ornament themselves 
with necklaces, bracelets, anklets, bells, teeth of deer and crocodiles, 
little bundles of fragrant herbs, and other objects, according to the 
splendor with which they wish to shine. They are sometimes seen 
with a golden collar and slippers of silver, made and worked by 
themselves. They are very much addicted to the habit of chewing 
betel nut and tobacco. The latter they mix with u among," from a 
creeper which they call balinguina, and the former with caningag, a 
poor sort of cinnamon which is very abundant in that country. 

The Mandayas do not employ monej^, but exchange and barter dif- 
ferent objects, and if they receive silver it is in order that they may 
manufacture the above-mentioned articles of luxury, with which they 
adorn themselves, and to embellish their arms. 

The} r believe it is an obligation, even with the death of the one who 
has inflicted them. From this it results that feuds are sometimes 
handed down for several generations. 

The Baganis, so called, are distinguished by their dress, which varies 
according to the number of persons whom they have assassinated. 



368 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Those who have committed from five to ten murders wear on the head 
a flesh-colored handkerchief. If the number lies between ten and 
twenty they wear a scarlet handkerchief and shirt; while those who 
have killed twenty or more have scarlet pantaloons as well. After 
committing' a murder they cut off a lock of the hair of the victim in 
order to ornament the border of their shields, and in this way they 
keep track of the number of persons whom they have killed. They 
use armor made of three thicknesses of split rattan in order to protect 
the breast and back. When pursued they make the progress of their 
enemies difficult by driving into the ground sharply pointed pieces of 
bamboo of different lengths, and set spring bows, which are carefully 
concealed. 

They build their houses in strategic and almost inaccessible posi- 
tions on the summits of the crags and in the tops of trees. The}' usu- 
ally attack at dawn, but they first assure themselves of the probability 
or certainty that their undertaking will result well. They prepare 
ambushes in dense thickets along paths, and when they can not satisfy 
their vengeance on the enemy who is the target for their wrath, they 
take it by shedding the blood of his close or nearest relative or that of 
his friends or of members of his settlement. 

Among the Baganis there are found some cannibals who are said to 
tear out the palpitating entrails of the victim and eat them, together 
with pork and chicken meat and sweet potatoes, or only with boiled 
rice. 

A husband is under obligations to pay for his wife in advance by 
serving for her parents for a period of four to six years. This is the 
origin of the custom of having the young men live in the houses of 
the parents of the women whom they are to marry. If the man is of 
some importance, he pays for a wife as high as six slaves. In addi- 
tion, the aspirant gives, from time to time, hogs, tuba, rice, plates, 
bolos, and lances to the parents of the lady of his choice. A man who 
breaks an engagement loses by this act all that he has given. A woman 
under similar circumstances must return what her parents have received 
and must, furthermore, give a slave in exchange for herself. Mar- 
riage among the Mandayas is solemnized by the husband giving the 
wife a handful of boiled rice, and vice versa, in token of the fact that 
they are to mutually sustain each other. 

THE MANOBOS. 

The Manobos constitute one of the most numerous tribes of the 
island of Mindanao. They are, in general, fierce, inconstant, and dis- 
trustful. They ordinarily build their houses in the tops of trees near 
rivers. Although they do not lead a nomadic life, like the Mamanuas, 
nevertheless they ordinarily change the site of their huts (Mich year in 
order to form new cultivated plots, and they do not have the attrac 
tion resulting from fixed property rights. There are "Baganis" 
among them also, and the same strifes and rivalries occur as among 
the Mandayas. 

When someone dies within a house they abandon it, and if the 
deceased is a stranger they compel his family to pay the value of the 
deserted house. They ordinarily live in settlements, the chiefs of which 
maintain a sort of patriarchal or family type of government. 

In their rites and superstitions they very greatly resemble the Man- 







p c — vol 3—01 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 869 

cU^as. They believe in three principal divinities, which they imagine 
as strong animals inhabiting the forests, of which they are held to be 
the owners. One is called Tama, who they believe watches over the 
snares and traps which they set in the forest in order to secure deer and 
hogs. The sacrifice which they offer in order to make them propitious 
consists in placing upon a post a couple of eggs or a little rice which 
any animal may eat, while they in their simplicity believe that the 
imaginary being has taken it to himself. 

Tumanghob the}^ consider the god of crops, and they offer him, upon 
a lattice work made of sticks and raised a meter or so above the earth, a 
hog boiled in water and cut to pieces, and at its side the indispensable rice 
and a little tuba. Then they call him with a great outcry, and as no 
one appears they decide that the god is satisfied with the mere invita- 
tion, and so the} r themselves eat the offering, terminating the feast 
b}^ all getting drunk. 

Finally, the god called Busao is regarded as the cause of sicknesses, 
and to him they also offer sacrifices. 

The Manobos also resemble the Mandayas in the matter of clothing, 
arms, and ornaments, with the exception of strings of beads. The 
Manobos prefer black beads, which the Mandayas despise, always pre- 
ferring bright -colored beads, provided they are not green or yellow. 

THE BAGOBOS. 

The Bagobos inhabit the foothills of the volcano Apo, and are divided 
between as many settlements as there are rivers bathing those dense 
forests, and the rivers are many. They are of medium stature. It is 
very unusual to find a Bagobo who is lame, squint-eyed, one-handed, 
or deformed, for when a child is born with some conspicuous physical 
defect it is not allowed to live. The Bagobos are industrious, and 
although the}^ like to keep slaves, it is ordinarily in order that they 
may sacrifice them. In their wars they make use of the lance, cam- 
pilan, bow and arrows, and some of them have firearms. As a rule 
they kill by treachery. The headman, or dato, is wont to attend to 
the government of his settlement. They settle their difficulties in 
conformity with the traditions handed down by their ancestors and 
with their own superstitious beliefs, often availing themselves of the 
right of might. They do not make idols. They believe that they 
have two souls, of which one goes to heaven and the other to hell. 
They worship and offer sacrifices to the devil in order that he may 
allow them to live, for they say that death, sickness, and other dis- 
agreeable incidents of life are due to him. Among other superstitions 
they believe that one can not ascend the volcano Apo without first 
making a human sacrifice to Mandarangan, who, according to them, 
has his throne there and needs human blood to drink. Mandarangan 
has wives, and is the head devil, and the volcano belongs to him as the 
gateway or path to hell. During their sacrifices they pronounce the 
following words: "Eat, Mandarangan, and drink the blood of this 
man." 

The singing of the Limocon (a species of wood pigeon) is for them 
the voice of God, advising them of the dangers which await them. 
When the bird sings on the right the augury is good, and they continue 
their journey without fear; but if it sings on the left they do not dare 



370 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

to go forward. Various others of the pagan tribes have this same 
suuerstition. 

THE SAMALES. 

The Samales, or natives of the island of Samal, situated in the Gulf 
of Davao toward the north, and in front of the town of the same name, 
are found divided into seven groups or settlements. In each of these 
there is a capitan, or old man, whom they all obey. Their ordinary 
occupation is the making of small and very rude boats from the trunks 
of trees split lengthwise and excavated. They also make salt by the 
evaporation of sea water. They gather beche de mer and sweet pota- 
toes in abundance, and with this they ordinarily nourish themselves. 
Rice can hardly be raised in their ground, which is usually very dry 
and lacks rain. As for religion, they show little indication of it, merely 
practicing certain superstitious ceremonies which they have seen in use 
among the Moros. 

In a little coral island near the coast they have a burying place in a 
small grotto. The mortuary caskets, made of two excavated halves of 
a tree trunk, are placed on supports of palma brava, and remain 
there until time destroys them. Each year, after the conclusion of the 
harvest, the Samales go to visit this burying place, leaving there offer- 
ings from their crops. 



CHAPTER III. 

CHARACTER ANT) CUSTOMS OF THE MOROS. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Beyond doubt, even if the Moros did not demand attention on 
account of their turbulent character and the influence which they have 
exercised over the population of these islands, they would still be inter- 
esting on account of the tenacity with which they hold to their beliefs 
and their adventurous life, as well as because of the place which their 
conquests occupied in the history of the Philippines. We therefore 
give a chapter to the description of the character which distinguishes 
them and the manner of life which they Lead at present at the different 
places which they inhabit in the southern portions of the archipelago. 
Wo shall not discuss in detail all of tin 4 tribes usually distinguished, 3 
but we shall contine ourselves to the more important groups, making 
use of the description of the Jesuit Father Murgadas. 

The apolitical regime of'tJu Moros of Sulu. To begin with their gov- 
ernment, the Sultan is the sovereign, and LS the absolute arbiter of 
persons and events in the whole region subject to his mandates; that is 
to say, the three groups of islands which constitute the Sulu Archi- 
pelago. A> a matter of fact, he does not enjoy so absolute a power, 
except in thoso districts which form his private domain, and in the 



Seethe Ethnological table at the end of Part J I, Chapter IV. 



Plate XIX. 




ALTAR USED BY THE BAGOBOS AND OTHER PAGAN MOUNTAIN TRIBES. 

(They believe that they see and meet spirits in the forms of the large rivers and trees.) 



Plate XX. 




BAGOBOS OF THE SLOPES OF THE APO. 
In holiday attire. 



Plate XXI. 




BAGOBO ASSASSIN. 



Plate XXII. 




BAGOBO ALTAR OR PLACE OF WORSHIP. 
At the source of the river Ragubbrug, near Apo. 



KEPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 371 

districts of those datos who are his relatives or allies. The other dis- 
tricts are governed almost independently by their hereditary datos, 
whose power is absolutely unlimited. As a matter of fact, the author- 
ity of the Sultan is quite weak. 

The datos, or feudal lords, are the actual sovereigns in their citadels, 
and they have subject to their orders chiefs of lower rank, from among 
whom they select the "tao marahay" (good and brave men) or free 
men. All the others are sacopes (vassals) or slaves. 

Character and general manner of life. — As for their warlike and 
hostile spirit, each Moro is a soldier and is always armed with kris, 
campilan, or lance, and sometimes with two of these arms. He never 
leaves them, not even when at rest, but even sleeps with them; and 
this Moro soldier is astute and fanatical for his beliefs, obstinate, cow- 
ardly in the open field, or when he sees calm and decision on the part 
of his enemy and can readily escape; but brave, dashing, and audacious 
to the point of ferocity when he sees himself surrounded and unable 
to escape; conspicuous for his sobriety, he nourishes himself with a 
handful of rice, with the fruits which he gathers in the forests, the 
herbs of the plain, and the little fish of the streams. He drinks the 
water of springs, more or less clean and clear, and in lack of other 
water which is better, when he is afloat satisfies his thirst with sea 
water. Extremely agile, he quickly ascends the mountains, climbs the 
highest trees, crosses the deepest and thickest mangrove swamps, fords 
the torrents, leaps across the small streams, and lets himself drop with 
the utmost coolness from a height of 15 or 20 feet. Accustomed from 
birth to live in the water, he swims like a fish, so that the crossing of 
a river, although it be wide and swift, is for him the most simple and 
natural thing in the world; and when, on account of the strength of 
the current, he can not or will not swim, a single bamboo, stretched 
from one bank to the other, makes him a sufficiently commodious bridge. 

Owing in part at least to the warlike spirit which animates them, 
the Sulu Moros have always been turbulent and refractory toward 
outside domination. They have displa} r ed a tendency toward robbery 
and piracy. Their settlements, which are always small, are situated 
in low plains near the fields, or in the vicinity of rivers, creeks, and 
swamps. They suddenly attack unarmed vessels and the defenseless 
towns of the Christian natives. They ravage the fields, burn houses, 
and take captives in order to increase the number of their slaves. 
To-day, however, instances of piracy are rare. The increasing num- 
ber of war and mercantile vessels is rapidly putting a stop to it. 

Their ignorance is as great as their cruelty. Apart from their datos, 
and those who constitute among them a sort of ecclesiastical hier- 
archy, few of them know how to read, and almost no one can write. 
They have no books except an occasional copy of the Koran, and the 
Manlut, which are always in manuscript, with vignettes and ornaments 
not lacking in elegance. 

The common people of the towns are as a rule very lazy. A con- 
siderable number engage in commerce. The} r come and go between 
various points of the archipelago in their light vintas (canoes), some 
of them trafficking in pearls and pearl oyster shells, others in the 
highly valued edible birds' nests. They also bring cinnamon, avaca 
(Manila hemp), hides of bullocks, and buffaloes, shark fins, and other 
articles. 

As for their domestic habits polygamy is common among them, and 



372 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

the number of women each man keeps depends 011I3' on his individual 
resources. Only one of them, however, is his legitimate wife. The 
marriage ceremony, which is preceded by a simulated carrying off of 
the bride, is celebrated before the pandita. Divorce may be had on 
demand of either party to the contract. 

Those who are condemned to death have their heads cut off, or serve 
the datos as targets for their revolvers, or as objects for trying the 
edges of their krises or tombicus. Sometimes they are given over to 
the populace, who cut them to bits with kris blows struck in tune to a 
certain dance, during which each individual strikes the victim. These 
executions have in the past afforded occasions for great festivity and 
rejoicing to the sanguinary population of Maibiin. 

Costume. — Their costume is similar to that of the Malays. It con- 
sists in pantaloons, which are loose, except in the part below the knee, 
which fits the leg closely, and a small jacket almost invariably of black 
color. It is closely fitting and has tight sleeves. Both articles of 
dress are so fashioned as not to interfere with the moA'ements of the 
wearer. On the head they wear a kerchief rolled into a turban, and 
some individuals wear shoes on solemn occasions. The chiefs and 
important officials dress in silk embroidered with gold or silver, and 
o f ten add a sort of mantle with broad sleeves slit open at the end. Some 
of them have this mantle stuffed with a quantity of cotton, so that it 
serves them as a coat of mail. The distinguishing features of the 
costume of the women are the patadion, a simple red skirt fastened at 
the waist and reaching to the feet, and a mantle in which they can 
envelop the whole body. Frequently they wear only the former or 
the latter in addition to the short camisa, which reaches to the waist. 

Beliefs, practices, superstitions, religious hierarchy. — Their religious 
beliefs are very confused, and they greatly neglect their religion, fail- 
ing to observe the precepts of the Koran in religious, civil, and crimi- 
nal matters. It is rare to amputate a hand as a punishment for rob- 
bery, nor do they cut out the tongue as a punishment for blasphemy. 
On the other hand they inflict the death penalty for all sorts of faults, 
except for fornication, which nevertheless is absolutely prohibited. 

For the rest their superstitions are ridiculous. A cloud which 
crowns some hill, for example, is the sign of the death of adato. He 
who c;m seize a snake changing its skin can make himself invisible as 
wdl, and they have many other similar ideas. They abstain, or rather 
pretend to abstain, from eating pork on account of peculiar scruples. 
I( is their custom to carry food to tin 4 graves, which an 4 numerous in 
(he vicinity of their towns. It is customary among them to take oaths 
to kill Christians, and they hold firmly to the belief that the reward 
for this is a prompt trip to Paradise on the back of a white horse. 
Their religious hierarchy is composed of various priests, called in order 
of their importance sarips, tatips, and imames. In order to beasarip 
one must know how to read and write, and as a rule must have made a 
pilgrimage to Mecca. Those who make t his pilgrimage, and who have 
the other necessary qualifications, thereby attain to the office. There 
are other grades of lower order. 

Their defensive anus are a circular or elliptical shield for the body, 
or big enough to cover the whole person. The shield is either made 
of wood alone or is covered on the outside with buffalo hide. From 
this same hide, which when well (aired is extremely hard, they make 
breastplates and helmets. They have also some coats of mail, although 




P C — VOL 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 373 

not many. Their arms of offense are either firearms or steel weapons. 
Among the former are cannons, of which they possess a great variety 
from caliber .21 to caliber .1. They neglect them greatly, as they do 
their rifles and shogtuns, except for one cannon, which in each fort 
occupies a chosen position and which they regard as the principal one, 
trusting in it superstitiously for defense and victory. Culverins of 
great length have been taken from them occasionally, and other small 
pieces which will only admit balls from caliber .2 to caliber .1; they are 
called lantacos and are in common use. The Moros make powder and 
some shot. 

They manage their pieces very slowly and often load them to the 
muzzle, making use of stones, nails, or pieces of iron in default of 
other projectiles. They also employ bits of a shell called taclobo or 
tacloe, which is extremely hard. 

As for guncarriages, they have some very good ones, which are 
evidently of English construction. Others are heavy and badly made, 
evidently by the Moros themselves, some with wheels, others without. 
In order to move them they make use of a contrivance very similar to 
that which is employed on war vessels, by means of pulleys and cords. 

Their artillery tactics amount to holding their fire until the enemy 
is very near. In this wa} 7 it is very easy to take aim and no shots are 
wasted. 

In their land expeditions they usually do not carry artillery, although 
the} 7 have sometimes employed small pieces, mounting them on forked 
sticks supported on little benches with three feet. 

Some people have wondered that they have had, and still have, 
artillery in abundance, but in addition to the fact that it is obtained 
easily in Borneo, when they need it, and at other points, and that they 
took possession of all they used to find in the numerous vessels which 
they captured, when, stronger than to-day, they practiced piracy. It is 
certain that upon the arrival of the Spaniards in these islands, the 
Indians cast cannon in Manila and Tondo, and also probably in Min- 
danao. Their steel weapons are the lance, the kris, the campilan, a 
three-pointed harpoon, and knives. Their temper is usually good, and 
one sometimes sees kris blades beautifully inlaid and so finely polished 
that they are in no way inferior to the famous blades of Damascus. 
The handles are, as a rule, made from hard wood obtained from a 
certain root. Many are of ivory and some, for the use of sultans and 
magnates, are of solid gold. They do not poison the points of their 
lances and javelins, as do the savages of the north and some of the 
pagans who dwell in the mountains; nor do they at the present time 
use arrows, which, however, the} r formerly employed. 

They are very dexterous in the use of these steel weapons, and the 
principal merit of their tactics lies in the agility with which they are 
endowed, which gives to their rapid movements a certain freedom and 
activity. 

The Moro who is disposed to fight, covered by his shield, and keep- 
ing the campilan, kris, or knife extended in his right hand, crouches, 
leaps up suddenly, turns, leaps from side to side, with the quickness 
of thought, laughing at the strokes of his opponent. It seems that he 
flees, when he suddenly rushes furiously upon his enemy, and hardly 
has he delivered his blow when he is seen ten paces away, leaping and 
whirling again, all of this accompanied by sharp cries and horrible 
grimaces, which serve, according to them, to confuse and alarm the 



374 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

adversary. If the arm which they use is the campilan, which has on 
the pommel a plume of horsehair or agave of thread stained red, they 
whirl it rapidly in different directions before the eyes of the opponent 
to make him dizzy. 

When the arm is a lance they handle it with a special knack, as they 
do the harpoons and javelins, which they use especially when from the 
top of walls they defend themselves against an assault. 

They never employ cavalry, which is not to be wondered at when 
one takes into account the nature of the country, which is quite 
unsuited to the operations of such a course. 

Fleet. — Their fleet, which plays an important part in their campaigns, 
includes a considerable number of kinds of craft, which cruise together. 
They are poncos, selisipanes, vintas, pilanes, and lancanes. 

All of these craft, not only on account of their form, but also on 
account of the large number of paddles, agree in being very fast, and 
since, thanks to their simple construction, they can be readily taken 
apart and put together again, it is easy to draw them up and hide them 
in the forest or mangrove swamps, taking them to pieces if they are 
too large. On account of their small draft they go everywhere, espe- 
cially the vintas, for which a foot and a half of water suffices. Thus 
it is that they go up the small streams and brooks. 

The Moros are good sailors, and since they are at the same time excel- 
lent swimmers, when wind or sea upsets one of their boats the crew 
take to the water and readily right it again. 

MOROS OF THE RIO GRANDE AND LAKE LANAO. 

These Moros are extremely proud, jealous, and distrustful; read}^ to 
make vague promises, but unwilling to make definite ones which 
might demand fulfillment. They show a certain malice in their rela- 
tions with the Spaniards which one can understand only with time. 
Very lazy, the}^ avoid work as far as possible, and spend much of their 
time in repose, to which their physical debility and the enervating 
climatological conditions contribute not a little. It would, neverthe- 
less, be possible to get some of them to cultivate the soil, as is true by 
some settlements near Cotabato. Slow in all their agreements, one of 
their particular pleasures is dechira, or conversation, which is pro- 
longed hour after hour on the idlest pretext. 

The costumes which the individuals of both sexes wear are almost 
identical with those employed by the Ilocanos. The men cod a hand- 
kerchief about the head, leaving the crown uncovered, and with the 
point of the handkerchief projecting at one side. They wear a short 
jacket of white cloth, or of dull colors, which hardly reaches the 
waist. The patadion, so common in the Indian and Malayan settle- 
ments, covers the leg only to the knee, and not to the ankle, as among 
I he Sinhalese of ( Vylon. The sash is quite common, and the magnates 
wear slippers. The pantaloons are, as a rule, narrower and shorter 
than those used by other Moros. Hie women wear patadion, and 
sometimes jabol and short camisa. 

Their principal arms, to which they are singularly attached, are the 
campilan, a broad saber with a long blade, very sharp, and with its 
hilt similar to that of the Indian yatagan, with a plume of hair. The 
kris, a short machete, with a very narrow, straight or wavy blade, 
with hilt of ivory, or bone and wood (camuning), usually carved with 



> 






y^t 


X 


» *iy 


X 




s 




H 




■< 





PLh 




REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 37 5 

taste; the dagger, also straight or wavy; the bolo, shorter than the 
kris, and alwaj^s straight, and with a long and narrow hilt, which is 
the arm most used, and which serve them also for the pacific labors of 
the field. 

The lance, with shaft of wood or bamboo, and a long and broad 
head which may be straight or wavy; and, finally, arrows made of 
cabonegro, which they are in the habit of poisoning. Firearms, 
although little used among these Moros, are held in high esteem by 
them, and their lantacas (a species of culverin) are the greatest treasure 
of the datos and sultans. The tribes near the lake of Lanao, stronger 
and more warlike than those of the Rio Grande, use breastplates and 
helmets. They are quite heavy, and are made of buffalo hide and 
bronze, or of copper. They have clasps at the center, and their form 
reminds one somewhat of that of the ones used by the Romans. The 
most common defensive weapon is the buckler or shield, which also 
serves them for a hat. 

There is a patriarchal form of government established among them. 
The authority of the head of the family is supreme, and the dato con- 
siders his vassals as members of his family. The slaves, which con- 
stitute the third class, are not ordinarily badly treated, and frequently 
become A^assals. Both sexes may reign, the princess of Sibuguy, 
who governed in the gulf of the same name, and held court on its 
eastern coast, having been one of the most powerful magnates of 
southern Mindanao. Modern inventions cause wonder and fear 
among these Moros. They call gunboats ships of fire. Nevertheless, 
favored b}^ the nature of the country, especially in the swamps, there 
have been occasions when they gave the Spanish soldiers plenty to do. 

In every settlement it is customary to have a priest, or pandita, who 
wears a white suit and turban. As a rule he has made a pilgrimage 
to Mecca, and it is his duty to read the Koran, the copies of which are 
guarded with the greatest care, some of them being very correct — veri- 
table bibliographical treasures which date from the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries. The pandita is called in council in all very 
important affairs, and he wields the campillan in the campaign. 

Some of the principal Moros show a very cultivated intelligence; 
others display eagerness to learn and great curioshVy in regard to the 
affairs of Europe, which seems to be common to many Asiatic peoples. 

The Moro settlements of the Rio Grande live in perpetual discord, 
which is not, however, very bloody. 

SAMALES-LAUT. 

The Samales-Laut are a tribe of Moros who form the most numer- 
ous and most characteristic portion of the population of Basilan. 
They occupy the whole coast region, plying their trade of pirates and 
making captive not only the Christians of the islands if they can, but 
also the Moros of the interior, called Yacanes, for whom they have a 
natural antipathy. There are also found among them Sulu and Malayan 
Moros, forming a total population of 10,000 to 12,000. 

Customs and religious observances. — They are by nature dirty, proud, 
inconstant, very parsimonious in giving, and disposed to talk and frit- 
ter away time. 

In the wars which they frequently wage against the Christian towns 
they are fierce and daring, and although dripping with blood fight to 



376 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

the death, inspired by hatred. They construct forts which the} T defend 
with ditches and thick walls of earth. 

They ordinarily dress in pantaloons, which are narrow below and 
loose above, and this is true of women as well as men. The former 
also cover themselves from head to foot with a mantle, which they pass 
under the arms, forming folds. The Yacanes wear straight pantaloons. 

As for their religion, they pay very little attention to its ceremonies. 
They suppress many of the precepts of Mohammed and add others 
which he did not prescribe. They do not pray once a day. They 
almost never observe Friday, and they no longer make pilgrimages 
to Mecca. 

As for their marriages, the fathers or owners of the } T oung girls 
rather sell them than turn them over as wives, only granting them 
to those who wish them on the payment of certain sums, greater or 
smaller, according to whether the family is more or less important 
and the girl more or less good looking. In general they demand $30 
to $50 or more, besides the cost of the banquet. 

The ceremonies with which they celebrate the marriage are extremely 
remarkable and original. The bridegroom chews the regulation betel 
nut, comes forth in the midst of the invited guests, and passes his 
hands over his face, with which gesture they say that he asks pardon of 
God, confessing his sin. This they call magtanbat. Later, if the 
bridegroom has not paid for a good banquet, on account of being poor, 
some of the headmen present give him blows on the back with a rat- 
tan more or less numerous according to what he has failed to provid 
for the banquet. The bridegroom then goes and washes his feet an. 
clothes himself in white. Returning, he heats simself on a sleeping mat 
and places his right hand within the two hands of one of the headmen 
and his left on top of the right hand of the remaining headman. 
Later the imam covers his right hand and the right hand of the bride- 
groom with a white handkerchief, and thus together they pronounce 
certain words of the Koran. The imam raises his hands and stretches 
them out in such a way that the palms are turned toward each other 
and a short distance apart, and he raises them to his head. The bride- 
groom does the same, but the palms of his hands are turned toward his 
face. They then clasp hands in the way already described with the 
headmen, and immediately a feast follows. When this is over they go 
to the house of the bride, and there they repeat with her the same cere- 
mony which they have practiced with the bridegroom. At intervals they 
play on the calintangan, and if it is an important person there are gun 
shots, while they kill a buffalo or a heifer and invite a large number 
of guests. The richer the man the more guests are invited. They 
often have at intervals a warlike dance. 

At their burials they dress the dead in a white cloth which covers 
them from head to foot. Those who aid or visit the deceased are 
invited to a banquet. The trench which they dig is more or less deep, 
according to the rank of the person whom they are to bury, but it is 
always a yard and a half to 2 ywvds and of lunar form. At one side 
of it they dig out a sort of cave for the reception of the body. They 
place upright sticks in this cave where the body is deposited and till 
up the trench, while two people keep off the tlies with a white hand- 
kerchief in order that they may not come near. At the head and the 
foot of the grave they put a cup of water and food. The imam comes, 
pronounces some Mohammedan phrases, draws near the trayful which 



Plate XXVIII. 




DATO PEDRO CUEVAS, WIFE, DAUGHTER, AND SERVANT. 
He is a Taga]o, but wears Moro attire. The wife and servant are Moros. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 377 

they have provided for him, and there over the grave eats the delica- 
cies on it and retires. When this is over, the death guards come (tun- 
guquibul), who watch over the dead man for some days and nights, 
according to the means of the family of the deceased. They are paid 
with food and cloth each time that they are on guard. When the 
deceased persons or their relatives have nothing left with which to 
satisfy them, the guard is no longer maintained. 

When they get together for public worship, which they do when it 
pleases them, they call the people together with harsh strokes of a 
heav}^ wooden beater upon a sort of drum. The imam in melancholy 
tones begins an invocation to his god, and reads a passage from the 
Koran; and in the meanwhile his hearers chew betel nut, talk to each 
other, lie down, laugh, shout, and go away again, without either the 
imam or the people's having understood what he has read. The prin- 
cipal and well-nigh the only feast which they celebrate is the maulut, 
or birth of Mohammed. Each settlement, and sometimes even each 
family, celebrates it on the day that pleases them. They ought to 
celebrate it on the tenth night of the month called Rabie aual, which 
corresponds to the month of September. It is their custom to cele- 
brate it, however, after the harvest. When asked on one occasion 
why they did not celebrate it at the proper time, they replied that 
they celebrated it when they had enough for a good dinner. The 
various headmen are wont to gather with the imam and sing in a 
mournful voice, which seems to come forth from a cavern, the women 
preparing the food meanwhile. 

They are very superstitious. They fear Seitan (the devil) greatly, 
and appease him. During the cholera epidemic of 1882 the Moros of 
Panigayan, of whom the half died, turned loose boats filled with food 
upon the sea, in order that when he encountered them the devil would 
be content with the food. They also hung food upon the trees for the 
same reason. On that occasion the cherif did a good business, for he 
sold clear water which cured. In order to obtain the cure they had to 
recite certain Moorish phrases. If they got well it was on account of 
the water. 

As for education, it may be said that they have none. They know 
nothing of Mohammed, nor can they tell the day on which he was born, 
nor anything of his history. The most learned man among them is the 
serip, whose erudition, nevertheless, amounts only to the ability to 
write a few words in Arabic. 



CHAPTER IV. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Having now discussed the Philippine natives who are still to be 
found in a state of barbarism, it remains to describe the customs 
which distinguish those who are now civilized and Christianized. 

A thorough understanding of this latter class is incomparably more 
interesting and important, not only on account of the greater perfec- 
tion of the individuals composing it, due to the cultivation and develop- 
ment of natural faculties and inclinations, but also because it includes 
the greater part of the population and occupies the most productive 

p c— vol 3—01 39 



378 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

regions of the archipelago, while the civilized natives are in perpetual 
communication with foreigners on account of commerce and other 
social relations. 

The civilized natives are usually known collectively as Indios Fili- 
pinos, although there are distinct tribes among them showing slight 
differences in dress and customs, according to the provinces which they 
inhabit and the dialects which the}^ speak. . Examples of these tribes 
are the Pampangos, Pangasinans and Tagalogs of central Luzon, the 
Bicols in the southern part of that island, and the Ilocanos in Gagayan 
of its northern portion. To these should be added the Visaj^ans. 

We shall now describe the moral make-up of all these peoples, unify- 
ing their characteristics as far as practicable. 1 

CHARACTER OF THE INDIANS. 

It is commonly affirmed that the lymphatic temperament predomi- 
nates among them, but the physical characteristics which we have just 
described sufficiently indicate the fact that the lympathic temperament 
predominates among the civilized natives, but the irritability of his 
organism and the moderate development of the muscular system proves 
that the nervous temperament is also quite well marked. The tropical 
climate, the exuberant vegetation, and the imposing manifestations of 
the phenomena of nature in these regions constitute a conjunction of 
causes sufficient to produce a relative enervation in the cerebral mass, 
which affords an explanation of a number of physiological phenomena 
observable in the native. From this cause comes the inconsistency 
and volubility of his character that is naturally indolent and apathetic. 

They are easily affected, although not deeply, but they are so mod- 
erate in their manifestations of pain and pleasure, of fear, hunger, 
etc. (especially in the presence of foreigners), as to give reason for 
those who do not know them well to think that they lack sentiment. 
And although it is true that they are resigned and long suffering, 
yet they feel with as much keenness as the European the pleasur- 
able or painful sensations which they experience. Since they hardly 
give any sign when under the influence of passion, although it be 
violent, the most observing person is generally deceived, believing 
that there is a calm when the tempest IS in reality raging. It is not 
that they dissimilate deliberately, but rather that the idiogyncracy of 
their character causes them to repress themselves the move the nearer 
and more vehement (he explosion of the passion which dominates them. 

In this connection it is worth while to note the terrible or transient 
influence which the passions exercise oyer them, particularly anger 
and fear, which deprive them of intelligence, disturbing radically their 
judgment and their reason. Thus we see with too great frequency, 
and with no less astonishment, that the Indian of good character and 
customs, between night and morning, commits some atrocity entirely 
out of keeping with his character, apparently with all the cold blood 
in the world, but in reality without thinking of the consequences. 
And although one ventures to bring them to ids attention he neither 
notices what is said to him nor thinks of it; but later, when the fury 



l The material of this chapter Is taken chiefly from the work entitled Memoria 
complementary de la section 2d programa, pobladoree aborigenes. razas existentes y 
sus variedades, religion asas \ costumbres de los habitantes de Ellipinas. Edition 
official, Manila, 18S7. 



Plate XXX. 




A SAILBOAT OF THE MOROS. 



EEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 379 

of passion, which absorbs all his faculties and converts him into a ver- 
itable lunatic, is passed, he recognizes his difficult position, laments the 
crime which he thoughtlessly committed,, and accepts whatever penalty 
may be inflicted. 

In the case of his unimportant thoughts he feels disturbed if he is 
left without his deserts, perhaps because he thinks that he is despised 
and not made of sufficient importance, and his apprehension in this 
case reaches such a stage that when he is left unpunished, as if disap- 
pointed and claiming punishment, he throws himself, if one may say 
so, into more serious faults, becoming unashamed before and con- 
temptuous of one who does not punish him, and on the other hand 
showing himself submissive and sympathetic, serviceable and even 
friendly to one who chastises him paternally, yet avoids rigor and 
cruelty. For this, as does ignoring him, far from correcting him, 
exasperates him, irritates him, and makes him revengeful, just as when 
one punishes him unjustly. 

Fear and other dominating passions of the natives affects them to 
such an extent as to completely disconcert them, and, as they say, 
atarantar (tarantula bite) them, but without changing them outwardly, 
and almost without their showing any disquietude and vacillation, so 
that the most observing person hardly notices it until the moment 
comes when the sweat of anguish appears and they begin to tremble. 
The mere presence of a European has an extraordinary effect on them, 
although he neither menaces them nor punishes them. His raising 
his voice a little, or changing it, his contradicting them or pressing 
them closely with questions, is enough to convert their fear into a 
veritable terror, especially in the case of natives little accustomed to 
deal with Spaniards. This fear or terror of the native furnishes a sat- 
isfactory explanation of many of his absurdities, wild answers, and 
contradictions in which he so frequently indulges, and which can not 
be otherwise explained. 

It is true that he naturally seeks to escape punishment, and with 
all the kindness in the world denies the evidence, inventing things with 
astonishing ability, confirming with impassive stoicism one lie with 
another, and this with a third, until his story becomes utterly improb- 
able. This may be the effect of the poor training which children receive 
from their parents, who punish them cruelly when they confess their 
faults and believe them stupidly when they deny them. 

They are very reserved with Europeans, and when in their presence 
so repress and moderate the manifestations of pain or pleasure as 
often to impose on them. And, if the manifestations of grief readily 
pass into those of joy, and vice versa, it does not prove that they are 
insensible to pain, but rather that their impressions are transient, on 
account of the immense influence which imagination exerts oyer them. 
We shall discuss this latter point more at length later. In proof of 
the fact that they are not without natural sentiments, although they do 
not manifest them outwardly, we note that parents are most unwilling 
to consent to a long separation from their children, and that they 
bring them up with much affection in their own way. 

We should also note how great is the influence which the impressions 
of the sense and the imagination exert over them, particularly among 
the but slightly civilized people and especially, among the women, 
who respond to the external impressions which they receive exactly 
like young children. Wherefore they have been very graphically 



380 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

described as large children, and in all things they must be treated as 
such. When under the influence of their imagination it controls them, 
and produces self -absorption and complete abstraction to such an extent 
that when the}^ are talking with others they are completely ignorant 
of what is being discussed, so that it is necessary to sharply call their 
attention one or more times in order that they- may come to themselves 
and take note of what is being said to them. This also explains many 
of their absurd and unreasonable replies. Hence the custom wide- 
spread among those who have been long in the country of repeating 
things many times when treating with the natives, and of making them 
repeat what has been said to them, as well as taking care to avoid giv- 
ing them many instructions at one time. As as rule when they reply 
immediately, or do not reply at all even when asked, it. is an indica- 
tion that the} T are not paying attention, and when they really do pay 
attention they are slow to reply. 

Another effect of their imagination is that they rarely follow out a 
preconceived plan. Ordinarily they act without forethought, intent 
only on satisfying their momentary passions, be these what they may, 
without thinking of results. As a rule it is useless to show them the 
advantages of employing other means more suited to the end which 
they seek. It is best to allow them to work in their own way. because 
they are preoccupied with other thoughts. Thus it is that they ordi- 
narily follow a routine, and so it is that it is said of the Indian that 
for him there is neither past nor future, for he does not occupy him- 
self with the future, nor do the occurrences of the past serve as a 
warning to him. 

Finally, these and other unfortunate customs of the Indians are 
largely the result of the bad training which parents give their children. 
and not the necessary consequence of their nature, which is docile, sim- 
ple, and, under the direction of others, excellent. There is no lack of 
examples to prove this assertion. There are many natives who are 
models of civil and Christian virtues; thanks to the careful education 
which they have received. This is especially true of girls who have 
been educated from their early youth in the colleges of the capital. In 
general, they are not inferior in intelligence, culture, and honesty to 
European girls, and in certain particulars they surpass them. 

ABILITY OF THE NATIVES. 

The Filipino Indian is observing and endowed with great talent for 
imitation. If for serious undertaking and profound intellectual 
investigation he lias neither liking or aptitude above the ordinary, yet 
he shows himself skilled in the exercise of various arts and industries. 
In general, he is apt in all kinds of manual labor, and in those kinds 
involving imitation he has no equal. He is very able in all mechan- 
ical arts. lie imitates everything and adapts himself to everything, 
but seldom ever applies himself to anything, nor does he show an 
interest in perfect ing himself, being in fact usually without the neces- 
sary means for so doing. Nevertheless he works silver extremely 
well, and carves wood admirably, with tin 4 few and worn out-tools 
which he employs. Those who profit by the direction of European 
masters have 4 better tools and produce better results. The Indian is 
extremely fond of music, and in a short time learns how to play any sort 
of an instrument, but some of the bands, which are indispensable and 



Plate XXXI. 




MODE OF CARRYING CHILDREN. 



Plate XXXII. 





m 



FILIPINO WOMAN CARRYING HER CHILDREN. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 381 

exist in every town of the Philippines, are poor because of their lack 
of knowledge of principles, and many of them play by ear without 
understanding a single note. 

The women are diligent and industrious. Their inclination to com- 
merce and small industries is marked, and they have exceptional 
ability for weaving, embroidering, and lace making, producing work 
equal to or better than that of Europe. 

USUAL AND MOST FITTING WAY OF LIFE. 

What most attracts the attention of a new arrival in the country is 
the houses of the Indians. They construct them with four to six pil- 
lars of hard wood, palm brava, or bamboo, imbedded in the soil. On 
these they construct a framework of bamboo. The roof and sides are 
usually made from leaves of the nipa palm. Often the houses are 
surrounded by bamboo tents, or by intertwined branches, spiny 
bushes, and other similar things, in order to protect them from 
thieves and other evil doers. Inside of this inclosure they usually 
have a little garden around the house with flowers, vegetable^, cacao 
(chocolate), bananas, cotton plant, mangos, reeds, and other plants, 
and this garden protects the house from fire during conflagrations, 
and makes it pleasant and cool. They have further a narrow well 
from 2 to 6 meters deep from which they draw water in a vessel 
attached to a bamboo pole, or by some other simple means. 

The houses have four or more windows, with shutters made of nipa 
leaves, which are hung on the outside of the house from bamboos. 
The floor is of small bamboos split and fastened to stringers of stronger 
bamboo or palma brava. There is often a little platform where are 
placed various utensils. The rest of their belongings are stored below 
in the lower part of the house, which may have a little portico which 
they utilize for a bit of a shop with samples of their wares in sight 
from the street. 

Such are the houses which one commonly finds in the outlying ward 
and the back streets of the towns. Among such houses cleanliness is 
apt to be lacking except among the Ilocanos, who are so clean that no 
European would be disgusted at living in their houses and using their 
things, poor though they are. 

Among the furnishings, which are never abundant, there is never 
lacking the little altar with images or pictures of saints for use in their 
devotions. Their stove is a heap of earth. Their bed, a petate or 
palm-leaf mat. In addition , they may have nets for fishing, and, finally, 
fighting cocks for amusement. 

Furthermore, each one has certain poor appliances for his work, such 
as carts, farming tools, a room which serves the women for weaving, 
etc. The draft animals wander about by themselves, and must be 
caught when they are needed. 

The common occupation for this class of people after cultivating 
their little plot of ground, or garden, or that of their employers, is 
reduced to seeking what is needful for their nourishment and satisfy- 
ing their daily necessities. The men go to the river, lake, or pool to 
catch fish with pole or net, often wading in the water up to their waists, 
and thus contracting fevers and other kinds of sickness. They also go 
to the forest to gather fruit and wild herbs which they mix with their 
boiled rice, and this, with a little fish, constitutes their main food sup- 



382 REPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

ply. They also gather wood, rattan, palm leaves, and certain fibers 
tor repairing- their houses and fences and for fixing their utensils and 
fools. 

They rent their animals and carts if they have any, and hire out 
themselves with their children for the transportation of crops to the 
market of the province, deriving enough from this and from their 
garden products for their ordinary sustenance, and for the most 
imperative necessities of their life, such as lard, salt fish, bananas, 
tobacco, and betel nut, as well as for bolos or knives which they use, 
and other small utensils of iron. It is preferably the women who 
attend to these matters, as well as to their domestic duties, and they 
also make fabrics of palm leaves and fibers. 

The women also attend to the sale of the products of their farms or 
their industries, to the purchase of animals, etc., because the women 
are better fitted for dickering and negotiation than the men. They clean 
cotton, spin it, color it, and weave it for their domestic purposes. In 
this work the Ilocano women are models of industry, and the blankets 
which they produce are highly valued in Manila. Where indigo is 
produced it is the women who prepare it by an operation extremely 
hard and unhealthful, placing it in maceration, pounding it, and 
extracting the juice, which they place in earthen pans designed for 
this purpose. 

Where abaca (manila hemp) is grown it is the women who prepare 
it and weave it, pounding for days at a time great masses of the fiber 
in the mortars which serve them for removing the hull from rice. 
They also practice other small industries, making petates, bayanes 
(small sacks), hats, etc. They prepare nipa leaves for thatch, extract 
oil from the cocoanut and other plants, roll cigars, look after the pigs 
and chickens, irrigate the crops, etc. If there are children, from very 
early youth they aid their parents, the boys by preference being 
assigned the duty of looking after the draft animals and to the per- 
formance of tasks suited to men, while the girls look after the pigs and 
chickens, attend to the washing, care for the house and for their small 
brothers and sisters. Boys and girls, without distinction, share in the 
work of pounding rice, to free it from the hull, and cooking the dinner. 
As they grow older they become a great help to their poor parents, 
whom they usually respect and obey. The girls, from their early 
years, show great shrewdness and good judgment. They go to the 
market to buy or to sell their wares, and the smallest of them go 
around selling refreshments prepared by their mothers, such as 
tobacco, betel nut, and other trifles. The boys are not so diligent and 
attentive, and as they grow larger are more inclined to grow lazy and 
vicious. The people are adherents of t ho Roman Catholic faith, 
especially the women, hut, being ignorant and uncultivated, they have 
some remnants of superstitions which they practice almost uncon- 
sciously, deceived by tin 4 quack doctors, who keep alive these ridicu- 
lous traditions of their ancestors without being able to give reasons 
for what they do. 

The lack of education among the children is most unfortunate, 
nevertheless they go t<> school more or less, and learn to read a little 
and write passably. 

This is in brief the life of the common Indians, who constitute the 
great majority of the people of the Philippines. 

As for their dress, the men wear pantaloons reaching to the feet, 




YOL 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 383 

and a shirt of colored jeans. They go barefooted, and for hats wear 
"salacots" of palm leaves. When at work they strip off the shirt, 
which annoj^s and heats them, an'd roll the pantaloons above the knees, 
or else use short breeches. They wrap a handkerchief about the head. 
When fishing, or planting rice they wear only a clout. They always 
wear a belt of cloth or woven rattan in which they keep some small 
effects, and from which hangs a bolo in a sheath made of two pieces 
of bamboo bound together by rattan or other fiber. About the neck 
they wear a small joint of bamboo with the cedula personal, as well as 
a little rattan case for betel nut, tobacco, etc. Almost all of them 
have a rosary, or scapulary of the Holy Virgin. 

The costume of the common women is a camisa of jeans, white, 
black, or brightly colored, or a skirt, a species of sack without a bot- 
tom, which is fastened about the waist and reaches to the ankles. 
They have no overskirt nor underclothing. In addition there is a 
short skirt used less frequently by the Visayan women, which is worn 
inside the saya, fastened at the waist, and reaching below the knee. 
The hair is combed back and secured in a knot at the back of the head, 
which is covered with a folded handkerchief, the two points of which 
are tied together in front. They also wear a sort of black veil when 
they go to church; it reaches to their waist, and in the case of the 
Ilocano women, to the ankles. 

THE MORE HONORABLE OCCUPATIONS. 

For the rest the employments, occupations, and pursuits of those 
who constitute the most enlightened class, or who have much to do 
with foreigners in the principal cities, are as various as are the employ- 
ments of the common people in the cities of Europe. The education 
which they possess may be compared with that of some civilized coun- 
tries, while comparison with the state of affairs existing in other 
native towns in Oceania will not reflect discredit on a Filipino. 

VARIOUS CUSTOMS. 

Although the indolence of the Indians is traditional, and some of 
them do, as a matter of fact, give up their time to vice and vagrancy, 
there has been not a little exaggeration in this matter. The lack of 
public works and of opportunity to work during the day contributes 
in large measure to the laziness of the Indian, and if their work in the 
fields is not very productive, the fact is due to the small inclination 
which they have for toiling in the fields, which they undertake as a 
matter of pure necesssity. Nevertheless, if one observes a native 
practicing any profession, he will agree with us that a man who, in an 
enervating atmosphere and a very high temperature, nourished by a 
little rice and a few fish, works for eight or ten hours a day, deliber- 
ately, to be sure, but without sign of weariness or fatigue, is not so bad 
a hand for work after all. As a rule they are active and arduous, 
and they do not lack bravery in facing the dangers of the sea. They 
are excellent sailors, and active in the management of cords and sails, 
a fact which is of importance to them since they live in large measure 
on the shores, streams, and lakes. They are very frugal at their meals, 
which consist of a little boiled rice, sometimes with the addition of a 
few herbs and saf t fish, all eaten with their fingers. They count them- 
selves happy if to this they can add a bit of meat. They are very fond 



384 KEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

of dainties, especially of roasted sucking pigs, which constitute one of 
the necessary dishes at all their feasts, which are magnificent and 
wasteful; vanity, their dominant vice, plays a great part here. 

Their delight in feasts and spectacles is very great, and for weeks at 
a time they give themselves up to comedies, music, artificial fires, 
attended with great noise, and to cock fighting, which to them is the 
most attractive of their diversions. The cock is their favorite posses- 
sion, and they exploit him in the fight, which serves them as a pretext 
for gaining, or for losing everything that they have at hand. Games 
of chance, lotteries, and raffles have a singular attraction for them. 
They never regard these things as pastime, but regard them as a 
means for obtaining a living. They do not care for honest sports and 
recreations as a rule. Although they bathe very frequently, some of 
them daily, for the rest they are not very cleanly and scrupulous. 
Nevertheless, during their feasts they display a luxury which is in con- 
tradiction of their habitual way of living. 

Their marriages are celebrated with Catholic rites, for the Indians 
have no other religion than the Roman Catholic. 

It is still a custom for the prospective bridegoom to live in the house 
of the parents of the bride, and to serve them without pay for some 
time before the marriage. The greater his supposed inferiority to the 
bride in personal gifts, or in fortune, the longer his period of service. 

When sick they prefer the help of curers who sometimes employ 
foolish and dangerous remedies, and at others make use of plants of 
the country that are really efficacious; but they alwaj^s give assidu- 
ous attention to the sick man, and the care which they give him is 
admirable. 

When a person dies the disturbance which suddenly arises in the 
house is remarkable. They all break forth into disorderly lamentation, 
acting as if they were out of their heads. Furthermore, at times the 
father or spouse becomes so beside himself that he snatches a stick or 
a bolo and slashes to the right and left at everything within reach, 
destroying clothing, furniture, utensils, and even the floor of the 
house. 

Senor La Calla says : 1 

If one takes into account the influence of a tropical climate, and tin 1 simplicity 
of custom in a life where the house, the food, and everything, in fact, is in common, 
it ought 1<> surprise no one that the laws of modesty arc infringed more frequently 
than in the countries of Europe. ( )n the other hand, it is worthy of note that there 
is a certain instinctive reserve which keeps the native from the scandal of a dissi- 
pated life. Frugality in the matter of food and the influence of religion are the 
agencies which contribute to keep these natives from evil practices and usages which 
air to-day prevalent in almost all the remainder of Oceania. 

It is worthy of note also that another characteristic renders the Filipinos superior 
to many Asiatic and Malayan peoples. Paternal love is one of their ruling senti- 
ments, and the father and mot her watch wit h affect ionate solicitude over the little 
ones, whom they surround with every care. 

They are hospitable by instinct, and it readily happens that lie who 
has a house and food places both at the disposal of anyone who chances 
to come along, even though he be a complete stranger. This charac- 
teristic, good in itself, is carried to extremes, as ji result of tin 4 innate 
timidity and weakness of character which can not deny anything to 
anyone. Not only do they show their hospitality to relatives and 

1 In the work entitled Tierras e Kazan, Part 1 1, Chapter I, Article III. 




-VOL 



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HBH^mt,, , - ., . ii - -iff •:|P|||^' 


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REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 385 

acquaintances, but also to strangers, concealing the disgust or incon- 
venience that it occasions them. As a result, vagabond Indians every- 
where find food and shelter, wandering about and making long journeys 
without spending a cent. They even lodge evil doers in their houses, 
and in spite of the trouble it occasions them, satisfy them with every- 
thing they have and can not conceal from them, showing a pleasure 
which they do not really feel in their company. 

They receive the importunate visits of their countrymen and others 
without its occurring to them to ask the reason for them, nor do they 
venture to send them away, although they give rise to inconveniences. 

Ambition holds little sway over the common people, who, strangers 
to the cares which so preoccupy the rest of mankind, live satisfied and 
happy with what they have and with what the country in which they 
were born furnishes them. From this it results that if they succeed 
in satisfying the appetites which they feel for the moment, they cease 
to worry, and have no care either for to-day or for to-morrow. 

CONCLUSION. 

It would be possible to refer to many other usages and customs of 
the Filipino Indian which are of considerable interest, which we, how- 
ever, omit intentionally in order to avoid prolixity; noting only this, 
that inasmuch as the character of the Indian is very different from 
that of the Euiopean, as are his inclinations, certain authors have 
believed, his character incapable of description, and entirely incompre- 
hensible, and have thus stated in their writings. It is certain that 
there is much exaggeration in all this. We have attempted here to 
set forth his leading characteristics, from which the judicious reader 
can derive sufficient knowledge of the native in order to maintain the 
social intercourse which may be necessary with him. 

p c— vol 3—01 42 



PAPER NO. IX. 



ETHOLOGY 



387 



ETHOLOGY. 



USAGES AND CUSTOMS OF THE NEGRITOS FOUND IN THE PHILIPPINES. 
« CUSTOMS WHICH ARE MOST WIDESPREAD. 

Whatever may be the name by which they are designated or the 
regions which they inhabit, an irresistible tendency toward a nomadic 
life has always existed among the Negritos. The result is that they 
are almost perpetually wandering through the dense mountain forests 
in small groups of families, and are without any fixed abiding place. 
They sleep wherever night overtakes them, under some tree, or in a 
wretched hut, which they improvise with a few sticks. They consti- 
tute a nomadic and savage people, in which we often meet with indi- 
cations of ferocity which separate these peoples from civilized men. 
Nevertheless, when they are treated with gentleness and kindness they 
show good characteristics, and, if they are not molested, they do not 
interfere with others. 

They go almost naked, with no other clothing than a small clout, 
which they fasten at the waist after the fashion of an apron, or in some 
other way. The women use an apron which is somewhat longer than 
that of the men. When they feel the cold in the mountains they wrap 
themselves in pieces of blanket, which they throw off again when the 
necessity for them has passed. 

They never arrange nor cut their woolly hair, which is allowed to 
grow naturally, and which gives the Negritos a strange appearance. 

It is very common among them to use as ornaments bamboo combs, 
rings, rings or bracelets, with strings of bat skin for the legs, collars 
of brass, and sometimes strings of glass, and rings of iron or copper 
wire for the ears and for bracelets. It is their custom, also, to tattoo 
the body in various ways, and some of them make deep incisions in 
their skins, which they then color with a bright blue substance, or in 
some other manner, and the scratches and broad scars which result are 
their most highly-valued adornment. 

As a rule, they construct no permanent habitations. They some- 
times place large quantities of leaves on the branches of trees in order 
to protect themselves from the rain, and with this they are contented. 
Their household utensils consist of a few cups, which they obtain 
readily by utilizing cocoanut shells and large sea shells, and rude boxes 
of wood in which they keep their buyo, and a few belongings of little 
value. 

As a rule, they do not make use of lances nor spears, but employ 
only the bow and arrows, which they use with unequaled skill, and 
which serve them on occasion as a weapon for the hunt or for war. 

They pass many of their leisure moments stretched out upon the 
grass, and singing and dancing in a large circle, leaping about with 
surprising agility. 

389 



390 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

Their business amounts to an exchange of wax, honey, and other 
forest products, for rice, tobacco, and small objects and trinkets 
which the inhabitants of the neighboring places offer them in trade. 
They are very skillful in hunting and following and killing deer. 
Their food is both animal and vegetable, but is insufficient in quantit}^. 
Roots and fruits, game and fish, furnish them subsistence, which is 
sometimes augmented by the products of a few small patches of culti- 
vated ground which they work in the mountains. 

Their intelligence is not so limited as is ordinarily believed, as has 
been learned from certain individuals who entered into domestic service 
with the Spaniards. 

Particularly noteworthy in the case of the Negritos is their custom 
of considering marriage as indissoluble and not to be broken under 
any consideration, which is quite the reverse of what is observed in 
other wild Philippine races. 

They show very few signs of possessing a religion, merely observing 
certain principles which indicate a belief in spirits, a fact which is also 
proven by the respect in which they hold the dead, whose burial places 
they inclose and keep from profanation by neighboring tribes. 

So much for the customs which in general distinguish the represent- 
atives of the Negrito race. 

In adding now some details in order to complete the picture of these 
peoples, it will be convenient to add descriptions of certain tribes 
which are most conspicuous and worthy of being known. 

CUSTOMS OF THE ATTAS. 

As has alreach T been said 1 these are the Negritos which inhabit the 
mountains' of the province of Cagayan, in the north of Luzon. Con- 
cerning them, Father Pedro de Medio has written as follows: 

The dress of the women is reduced to an apron, which is tied about the waist. 
It is ordinarily more or less dirty, but is of the most gaudy colors possible for the 
few days during which it is kept clean. The men in the hot season do not trouble 
themselves much about clothing, believing that they are treating their bodies 
extremely well if they adorn them with a simple cloth. In the cool season they 
envelop themselves with a piece of eondinian, wrapping it about them like a blanket. 
It presents the appearance of rags more or less dirty. In the matter of food they are 
as easily satisfied as in the matter of clothing. The depths of the forest provide 
them with roots, tubas, and vegetables in quantities sufficient to appease t lie severest 
attacks of hunger, and when they desire to present themselves with more, they hunt 
deer and wild hogs, and even birds, which they kill with arrows, managing them 
very dexterously, since they use the bow from childhood. Robbery, also, is tor them 
a very useful method of maintaining themselves, and they may well be counted as 
among the plagues which the agriculturists in the neighboring towns have to fear 
(although tne Colingas may be characterized as extremely lazy, the Negritos show 
this trait to a much higher degree, and maybe considered the incarnation of lazi- 
ness). There are a few settlements far within the large forests whose inhabitants 
take the trouble to cultivate' tiny fields near streams, but the cultivation LS conducted 
on so small a scale that it seems like play. Indian corn is almost the only thing 
which they plant, but there are those who do not even know this, and they are, per- 
haps, in the majority. Kven when they have cleared a small field, it is fashionable 
to abandon it in a short time. 

Although the dominant inclination of the Negritos is to wander through the deep 
forests, they may yet be divided into two classes — one totally nomadic, the other 
constituting villages which consist of a very small number of houses. The latter 
have their mayors and petty officials of justice, which are named by thegoberna- 
dorcillo of the township in w hose jurisdiction they are located. Care is taken, how- 

l See the Ethnological table, page (at the end of Chapter I, Part II). 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 891 

ever, to appoint some one who will meet with general approval. It has sometimes 
happened that some Indian or other, shrewd and daring, and accustomed to fre- 
quently visit their villages and treat with them, has become a lord to some one of 
his devoted Negritos, and eventually he is known and respected by this name to the 
remainder. Even the class of which we speak is wont to change with great frequency 
the situation of its cultivated fields and villages. 

There are other Negritos wholly nomadic, wandering through the forests, two or 
three families together, and sleeping at night under an improvised thatch of bamboo 
and leaves, or even in the top of some tree, or on the bare ground during the drv 
season. J 

There are Negritos who go to live near some Christian town in order to carry on in 
the houses of its inhabitants, or in their fields, some little work, such as pounding 
rice, caring for crops, or other affairs of the sort; but this is only temporary, and when 
they have need of corn, with which the Christians are wont to pay them, or of a few 
yards of cloth, brightly colored, but of little value. In places where the ground is 
favorable they choose the most elevated point, in order to construct there their little 
settlements. This, however, unfailingly remains abandoned within a year on account 
of the inveterate custom of these infidels not to remain in any one place. 

As for the customs and inclinations of the Negritos, it is not easy to learn to know 
them intimately, because no one can keep track of them except themselves. 

THE XEGRITOS OF SOUTH CAMARINES. 

Considerable interest attaches to the following data concerning this 
group of Negritos, furnished by Father Eusibio Platero, a Franciscan 
monk, who knew them personally: 

They are docile, idle, stupid, and they do not build anything but huts of very 
delicate poles, about 2 yards high, which they fasten together at the four angles, 
cover on the sides and top with palm leaves, and at the height of about 2 feet arrange 
a floor of very delicate poles somewhat separate from each other. They do not cul- 
tivate the fields nor sow anything but a few sweet potatoes. They hunt deer, wild 
hogs, and monkeys with their only arm, the arrow, which they use with skill. The 
only animal that they raise is the dog, which they feed only with the intestines of 
the game that they kill, skins of sweet potatoes, and now and then a raw cocoanut, so 
that the dogs are thin and wretched, but they run well, and do not cease barking, 
possibly stimulated by hunger. 

The men go almost naked, and either wander through the forest or come down to 
the town, although the Negritos of pure race seldom do this. The native of Isarog 
frequently does it. He also wanders naked through the forest, but when he comes 
down to the plains appears clothed like a wild Malay. The men do not wear ordi- 
narily any other clothing than a cord drawn tightly about the waist, from which, 
before and behind, there hang rags, with which alone they cover their nakedness. 
The women make use of a sort of circular apron. They do not use clothing to pro- 
tect themselves (from cold), and when they sleep they are not accustomed to spread 
over the floor either petaks or other mats. In order that gnats may not torment 
them, and that the cold of night may not harm them, they maintain fire below the 
house constantly, which literally toasts them, so that as a result they have their 
whole bodies covered with scaly excoriations, which are very repugnant, and further- 
more they are covered with small parasitic animals. 

When they get hungry on account of the lack of game, they present themselves to 
cultivate abacii or to aid in harvesting rice, and they work in the abaca plantations 
for their food and for a few handfuls of recently cut rice in the rice fields. They go 
two or three days almost without eating and then come back to work again. 

The Negrito frequently has more than one female companion at a time, but only 
one is the true wife; the others are held as slaves, and are usually those who have 
been left without companions by death or are female relatives who were repudiated 
and who have not contracted a new alliance. 

To their children they give the name of the places or the plant near which they are 
born, or that of some bird or snake. 

The most solemn function among them is the burial of their dead. When a death 
occurs notice is sent around; those who are in the neighborhood gather together and 
bring with them the game which they killed while on the road, and when they have 
arrived where the body is, which they envelop in the thick bark of a certain tree 
taken off entire, they close the ends of the package with a mixture of earth and 
resinous gum, by which operation the body is hermitically sealed up, and they leave 
it unburied many days. When they have arrived at the place where the body is 



392 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

they celebrate their gluttonous feast and get drunk on tuba. When all the con- 
veniences for a big time have been exhausted, they proceed to the burial which 
takes place in a vertical ditch. The dead man is placed on his feet. They then 
cover with earth the grave, which they make underneath the house, burn the house 
on top of it, and the tribe disperses. 

NEGRITOS OF THE ISLAND OF NEGROS. 

Of this tribe Father Cipriano Navarro writes as follows: 

These unfortunate human beings have no home nor fixed abiding place. All day 
they wander through the forests. When night overtakes them they sleep often in 
trees. They do not have any intercourse with those around them, and the only time 
when the Christians make out to have any communication with them is at the sea- 
son when they gather wax. According to the statements of the Christians, they are 
liars and do not keep their contracts. The only way to get anything out of this race, 
either in the case of men or women, is to take them when they are very young. Two 
cases have come to my attention, and from them some conclusion may be drawn 
favorable to this unfortunate race. One of these instances showed that in youth, at 
least, they possess noble and very generous and honorable sentiments. 

The first instance is that of a Christian Negrito called Joaquin, who, having been 
baptized when he was very young, was a servant in the house of a Spanish couple in 
the province of Cebu. Under their paternal control he lived for more than twenty 
years, serving them faithfully and affectionately. When his master finally died he 
transferred his home to the forests of Escalante, in Negros, living among the foothills 
of the solitary peak called Pinac, on the river Danao. It is said that he wore pan- 
taloons and a shirt and had a string of glass beads around his neck. 

The second case is that of a little Negrito girl, 4 or 5 years old, who was given the 
name Clementina, and supported by a Spanish family of some rank, lived happy and 
contented with her patrons. This family finally went to the Peninsula, and, having 
passed some years in Cadiz, the wife died. So great was the sorrow and pain of the 
Negrito girl that at the end of six days she died of grief. 

From what we have said of these tribes more can be inferred. In order to avoid 
prolixity 1 do not go further into particulars. 

USAGES AND CUSTOMS OF THE INDONESIAN TRIBES. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

As the rites and customs which distinguish the different pagan 
tribes of the Indonesian race are very various, 1 it is not eas} T to gather 
together the customs which are widespread and characteristic of all 
the peoples. For this reason we shall limit ourselves to giving in the 
present chapter a description of certain tribes which are especially 
interesting, or which for one reason or another are of greater impor- 
tance, making a note of their inclinations and characteristics, so that 
one may readily through these tribes come to know something of the 
remainder, which for brevity's sake we omit to mention. 2 

SHOUT ACCOUNT OK THE MONTKSES, OK BUGUIDNONES, OF MINDANAO. 

According to the Jesuit father, Parache, (his tribe is of prime 
importance among the peoples winch populate the island of Mindanao, 
on account of its nobility of character and its cheerful and natural 

disposition. 

l 8ee the ethnological table at the end of Chapter II, of Part II, page 
\ detailed account of the usages, customs, and characteristics winch distinguish 
the various tribes inhabiting the island of Mindanao may be found in an interesting 
work, profusely illustrated, which contains accurate information concerning them, 
since it is being written by various Jesuit priests who have had the different tribes in 
charge. It is at present in course of preparation. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 393 

The Monteses, like nearly all of the remaining pagans of the island, 
have a more or less vague notion of a Supreme Being, the Creator of 
all that surrounds them; and, furthermore, they believe in an evil 
spirit, which they fear and attempt to propitiate. But in actual prac- 
tice they worship idols as numerous as are their desires and the evils 
from which they wish to escape. They think that they meet and see 
spirits in the rivers, the trees, the mountains, and in the rocks, and it 
is common to find in such places a little table or altar with offerings 
which they have left as a sign of recognition or supplication. To him 
whom they call "Taguibanua," or Lord of the Earth, they are accus- 
tomed to offer presents at the time that they plant their fields, and 
they offer a feast of thanksgiving to him when they harvest their 
crops. _ They have superstitions and idol observances in great num- 
ber, as is true of the other pagan tribes. They believe in the immor- 
tality of the soul, being convinced that their ancestors see them and 
visit them, wherefore they themselves invoke them and invite them, 
giving them a place and participation in their feasts, whether joyful 
or sad. They have no permanent places of worship; they improvise 
them when and where they believe it necessary. 

The Monteses have shown upon occasion that they are sensible and 
not bloodthirsty, and they display a marked tendency toward a social 
and well-ordered life. They have a high consideration and appreci- 
ation of the principles of authority, which they have defined on various 
occasions with singular fervor against the Monobos, from whom they 
took many slaves, and against the Moros of Lake Lanao, as well as 
against those under the command of Uto on the Pulangui River, with 
whom they were always successful. It is a proof of their loyalty and 
valor that the Jesuit Father Ducos, in those great and toilsome marches 
which he made to break the boldness and pride of the Moros, chose 
to take to accompany and aid him these Monteses, together with the 
reduced Spanish militia, which he commanded as chief; and there are 
yet descendants of the head men who earned from the Spanish Govern- 
ment Maestre de Campo, under date of 1754, and, to touch upon 
recent events, in 1891 these same Monteses, directed by Father Eusebio 
Barrado, S. J., their missionary, armed with shields, lances, and 
campilans marched bravely to attack a force of Moros that was draw- 
ing near, and the latter fled in terror. 

A little later when the Spanish troops set forth from Iligan for 
Lanao, General Weyler desired to test them, ordering the same Father 
Barrado to make a reconnoissance toward the Moro settlements nearest 
Bugcaon and Sevilla. This second expedition was made up of 330 
Monteses, 60 of them armed with rifles and the remainer with lances. 
The expedition lasted eight days, and reached the sources of the 
Manurungas, a situation near the lake. 

The Monteses live in towns, especially since 1849, in which year the 
governor of the district proposed that they should enter upon the 
social form of life, which they have kept up for the most part, in spite 
of not having anyone to watch over them, nor missionaries. The 
latter they did not get until forty years later, when they themselves in 
considerable numbers went in search of a priest three or more days 
journey distant, in order to explain their affairs to him and come to an 
agreement with him. 

During all this time, without being compelled to do it, .with an armed 
force, they of their own accord took a census of themselves every year 



394 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

and presented the lists to the government, receiving in turn the titles 
of citizens. 

As regards the matter of marriages and burials, their customs differ 
little from those of the other tribes of the island. In matrimonial 
contracts the man has to buy the woman, and pay for her by rendering 
personal services or with money, slaves, or other valuables. Never- 
theless, cases may occur in which the parents being less needy, or well 
to do, the parents of the two contracting parties make an arrangement 
together which is more dignified and honorable. It also happens that 
if the married pair become weary of each other, and if what the man 
paid for his wife is returned to him, they separate, each one going his 
way as if there had been no contract. 

Polygamy is not very common among them, and is much less frequent 
among them than among the Mandayas and Manobos. 

In their agriculture, industry, and commerce they also lead. They 
employ the plow in their agricultural operations, which are various. 
For instance, they raise rice, indian corn, and mangos, as well as vari- 
ous nutritious roots and tubers. They know how to preserve sweet 
potatoes and bananas in a dry state against the time of need, and of the 
sugar cane they make a species of rum or wine, which they employ- 
extensively. Their principal products, abaca (Manila hemp), coffee, 
and cacao (chocolate), which they bring down in great quantities to the 
merchants who come to their coast. Tobacco is another product which 
brings them great revenues, and they produce a grade of excellent 
quality. Chestnuts and acorns are found in their forests, the latter of 
poor quality, but might be improved with cultivation. The former 
are indistinguishable from those which come from China. They also 
have honey and wax in abundance. 

In addition to what has been enumerated there are within their ter- 
ritory mines of gold, which they readily obtain in powder and in quite 
large grain. These mines are in the town of Oroquieta, in the direc- 
tion of the Rio Pulanqui. 

They know how to make excellent steel weapons, which have the 
reputation of being well tempered. Especially is this true of those 
which come from the town of Calasungay. Furthermore, they make 
from nito and rattan fine hats. Coats of mail for a defense against the 
Lances of their enemies are quite common among them, and some of 
them are very well made, with plates of buffalo horn and brass wire. 
They have probably captured them from the Moros. They also use, 
as a safeguard against accidents, a sort of jacket made of rattan and 
Stuffed with cotton. 

On account of their frequent communication with the natives of the 
Christian towns, they have gone on gradually becoming more civi- 
lized and inclined to the usages and customs of civilized people. 
Thus it is that .many of them dress like the later people, wearing hats, 
shoes, good pantaloons, coats or jackets, etc. In their houses those 
who can do so use lamps of porcelain, sewing machines, and other arti- 
cles which show their character. According to Father Parache, from 
whom we obtain this information, rain coats were seen among them, 
as well as spatterdashes, and one of the headmen even had a revolver. 
Their number is probably in the region of 13,0U0. 






Plate LI. 




TAGALA GIRL SELLING MANGOES. 



Plate LI I. 




TAGALA WOMAN IN USUAL NATIVE COSTUME. 

p o— vol 3—01 4:3 



PAPER NO. X 



IDIOMOGRAPHY 



395 



IDIOMO GRAPH Y. 



OBSEKVATIONS. 



As the mode of speaking portrays the human individual with all his 
personal character 'sties better than any external manifestation, so the 
most distinctive and noteworthy characteristic of each people and race 
is its language. Hence it may be said with truth, the style is the man 
and the language is the race. In consequence of this fact, when a 
student verifies with care what have been the primitive elements of a 
language, what has been its progress and its mixture with other tongues 
allied to it or entirely different, he will certainly come to know the 
origin and vicissitudes of the nation which has used it as its own. We 
have, therefore, wished to give up a part of this treatise to idiomog- 
raphy, and we shall begin by discussing in the following chapter the 
ancient alphabets of the Philippine peoples. 



CONCERNING THE ANCIENT ALPHABETS OF THE PHILIPPINE PEOPLE. 



THE PRIMITIVE WRITING. 

It seems to be true that the first inhabitants, or in other words the 
Negritos, did not have letters of their own. At all events there have 
not come down to us any traces of such signs, nor do we find mention 
of them in old or recent writings. 

The Indians, that is to say, the second set of colonists who came to 
the islands, used characters of their own, by means of which they 
wrote and made notes of their affairs on thick joints of green bamboo, 
palm leaves, banana leaves, and leaves of other trees, using for the 
purpose an iron point, a knife, or something of the sort. The Jesuit 
Father, Chirino, the oldest of the historians, explained their alphabet 
as follows, in the first work published concerning the Philippines: * 

The vowels are three, but they serve as five, and are 



\f 

a ei ou 

1 Relaci6n de las Mas Filipinas y de lo que en ellas han trabajado los Padres de la 
compafna Jesus Roma I. 604. Cap. 17. 

397 



398 REPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

The consonants are but twelve, and when written serve for conso- 
nants and vowels, as follows: The letter alone, without a mark above or 
below, is pronounced with A. 

O I V c co r -$~ y rn \f 03 cr v> 

Ba ca da ga ha la ma na pa sa ta ya 

When a comma is placed above, each consonant is pronounced with 
E or I. 

o i xr c co *-~rr u <n y 03 cr &> 

bi qui di gui hi li mi ni pi si ti yi 
be que de gue he le me ne pe se te ye 

Putting the comma below, each is pronounced with O or with U. 

o I xr c co ^r v m v 03 or v> 

» > 9 9 9 i 9 y > » 9 * 

bo co do go ho lo mo no po so to yo 
bu cu du gu hu lu mu nu pu su tu yu 

So that to say cama (bed) two letters without marks are sufficient, 
as follows: 

1 v 

ca ma 

I V spells que ma (burn), and t ? co mo (1 eat). 

Final consonants are supplied in all the words; for instance, cantar 

(to sing) would be written as follows: -L ^* beard C\J CO 

ca ta ba ba 

9 

If the point be placed over the I we get X 1/ (burn), or placing 

que ma 

I XT 
the two points under both characters we get , , (eat). 

co mo 

The fashion of writing was not every where uniform, and it might 
rather be said that various alphabets and modes of writing were in 
use. Bach dialect had its own, differing more or less from t ho others. 
Furthermore, sometimes authors who treal of a singh Language differ 
in their way of forming the various characters, and some give more, 
others less; which, apart from the greater or less individual ability in 
tracing them, should not occasion surprise, but is rather quite natural, 
taking into account the fact that they wrote at different times and in 
different places for said differences, as well as others in the language. 
would undoubtedly result from the old inhabitants having lived in iso- 
lated groups, without much social intercourse with each other. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



399 



The differences which we have just noted are shown by the accom- 
panying- six alphabets, which we place together in order to facilitate 
comparison. See accompanying paleographic table. 1 



Tagalo 


BlSAYA 


IL0CAN0 


Pampango 


Pangasinan 


Tagbanua 


EpUIVALENTE 


V ^J 


VV* 


V 


. . v: 


fc_ 


A 

,; .3 

/H* 


^/. 

£.M 

CM/...... 




^A, Y 


v>K 


If 


^kT 


3 


3 


3 


# 


3 


... I 


..._._,..x. 


Jb£. ... 


v 


<z> ... . 


..*... . 


.. ecu. 


Cv.S-— 


.3\. 


3i 


. ._c\ 


.. ...32. 


£*.. 


a as... . 


, ^y^ 


t~ 

'S..^... 


>. 3 


..._h^...... 


. ^. .. 


._<&£_ 


...72J20J.... 

.jbu..... 


X* 




g 


^3 


a 


.....jdaj... 


as. 


.......T--- 


-^ 


rr........ 


5 1 


€ 


no/.... 


v^ 


V° 




if 


If.. 


..A .... 


paj... 


o. 

:...VC. . 


.0 


...Q. ... 


a. ...... 

....2/ 


U 


o 


Jm/... 


.......Y b .... 


ri 


....maJ--. 


1ft 


...i/: ... 


.....iZ 3 .... 




2/° 


<s. 


yaj... 


.....x:...... 


..--*£> 


_*:_■. 


T. ... . 


......r.. 

i5 .... 


flfc v . 


...dscU-.-. 

./mow... 


sA.... 


...La.:.. 


.....vs.... 


......3...... 


4- 


rT... 


&L>... 


o-^> 


u 











fiaj.„. 




1 







A SINGLE ALPHABET. 

One can see at a glance that these alphabets do not differ in the pho- 
netic value of the signs, but onlv in their number and in the way in 
which they are formed. Hence various authors reduce them to one. 
For instance, Don Isabelo de los Reys Bays:" "The different Philippine 
alphabets very greatly resemble each other, wherefore I think that id 

*The Tagalog alphabet is that of Father Chirino, ™®^&™m^£^ 
Relation dfs Isles Philippines. The Bisayan alphabet follows that given by Father 
Fyo-nprra S T in hi* Arte de la . Langua Bisaya, Manila, 1/4/. The three following 
alpSts L^Sn^om^ework of^Don Sinibaldo de Mas, *M*™°™^ 
las Islas Filipinas, Madrid, 1843. Finally the Tagbanua is due to Dr. Pardo de Ta^ era. 

2 See his Historia d? Filipinas, page 19. 



400 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

this archipelago a single alphabet was used." What is this single 
alphabet? The Augustin Father Marcilla maintains that it must have 
been the Tagalog. 1 This opinion would seem quite probable, for 
Father Chirino, in the work previously cited, calls his characters "let- 
ters belonging to the island of Manila," and of the Visayans he says, 2 
"Nor did they have letters, for they took them from the Tagalogs 
very few years since." 
As to the Ilocanos, Father Marcilla writes: 

Since the Ilocanos have originated from the Tagalogs, they received their waiting 
and their languages from them, and although with the passage of time this was trans- 
formed and constituted a distinct dialect, since the structure of the two languages is 
the same, there would not have been any necessity for the Ilocanos to invent new 
characters, since they could write their ideas with the Tagalog characters. 

Further, it is worthy of note that the first booklets in Ilocano are 
in Tagalog characters, because these, as their authors note, were in 
common use. 

And if the Visayans and Ilocanos did not have an alphabet of their 
own, with more reason the same may be said of the other peoples, 
concerning whom there is less doubt, as everyone admits. 

Finally, in ancient writings we do not find mention of any other 
alphabet than the Tagalog, which ought to be sufficient, although up to 
the present there are neither documents, tablets, nor inscriptions, nor 
is there anything with reference to those natives who undoubtedly 
were the aborigines of the country. 

It seems to be clear, when one attempts to determine the origin of 
the races, that the tribe or nation from which the Tagalogs came 
enjoyed from the beginning, or at the time of establishing itself in the 
archipelago, a higher degree of culture than the other Philippine peo- 
ples which did not have a system of writing or, at all events, had a 
more rudimentary one, and accepted the Tagalog, abandoning their 
own, which would not have occurred had not the latter been more 
useful. 

COMPARISON WITH OTHER ALPHABETS. 

In the question of the resemblance of the Philippine alphabet to 
others in India and Oceania there are various opinions among authors 
who are wont to decide according to their personal ideas as to the 
mother tongue. In order to avoid confusion we show six alphabets, 9 
to each of which the origin of the Philippine alphabet has been attrib- 
uted, in order that the reader may compare for himself. (See paleo- 
graphies table.) 

It will be noted that the Toba is. perhaps, the one which most closely 
approaches the primitive Malayan alphabet. It comes from the inte- 
rior of Sumatra, where are found the lake and little table-land called 
Toba, whose inhabitants are Battacs and pure Malays. 

The Asoca is the oldest Indian alphabet used in the edicts of King 
Asoca, who, according to K. F. Holle, lived five hundred years before 
Christ. 

Finally, the Buggf is peculiar to Celebes. 

It will be readily seen that the Visavan alphabet is more like the 
Toba than like any of the others. 

'Sec his Estudio de 1<>s Antiguos Alfabetos Filipinos Malabon, 1895. 
"In his Relaci6n, chapter 16. 

■They are almost identical with those which Don Isabelo de los Reys publishes in 
his pamphlet, Los Islas Bisayas. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



401 



From this comparison it may perhaps be concluded that all of these 
alphabets come from a still older one, which has disappeared, in part 
at least, and which was more like that of the Battacs than any other. 
A similar conclusion was reached bv Don Isabelo de los Keys, after 



BlSAYA 


TOBA 


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Asoca 


Borneo 


Java 


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examining nearly all the alphabets of India Malay asia and other coun- 
tries of Asia and Oceania, as set forth in the curious Tabel von onden 
Indische alphabetten of the Dutch author K. 1. Holle. 

ORTHOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIPPINE ALPHABET. 

By the author above cited 1 " each consonant is pronounced with the 
vowel A if it has no additional orthographic sign. So that, for example, 
If we write the letters for L and B alone, we have laba without neces- 
sity of writing the A's. 



Op.cit., page 84. 



p c — VOL 3 — 01- 



44 



402 EEPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

The Malays suppress the vowel before the last consonant of words, 
and generally write only the accented vowel, omitting the short vowel. 

If a consonant has over it a sort of accent called corns, it has the same 
value as if followed by one of the vowels E or I, which were equiva- 
lent among the Visayans. So that L and B with corlis over them would 
spell lebe or libi. This accent was called corlit among the Filipinos in 
general, according to the authorities, but among the Visayans I believe 
that it was called corlis, which signifies a mark made with something 
that cuts, according to the dictionary of Father Encarnacion, which 
indicates the nature of the primitive writing instruments. 

If the consonants had the corlis below it was to be supposed that thev 
would be pronounced with U or O, which for the Visayans were one 
letter. Thus L and B with corlis below were pronounced lobo or lubu, 
as one pleased. 

The Malays also make use of commas or periods, which they place 
above or below the consonants, in order to indicate the presence of 
vowels and the sound which should be given them. They also stand 
for E or I if placed above, and for O or U when written below: while 
if placed before A is the vowel supplied. They are called Di-adapan 
in Malay. 

From which it may be inferred that the Visayans did not use vowels 
except at the beginning of words, as in Ogod, or when they were writ- 
ten alone, as in the Visayan exclamation A, or when they form diph- 
thongs, as in Liloan, which is written L with corlis over it, L with 
corlis below, and an A. 

In this case the readers would supply at least the final N. If written 
without the corlis the above word would be read Liloana. That is to 
say, an A would be supplied after the N, because it was conventional 
to suppose that eveiy consonant would be pronounced with A when it 
did not carry a corlis with it, while if it carried one it would be pro- 
nounced with the other vowel, according to whether the corlis was 
above or below. 

REFORM OF TAGALOG WRITING. 

This supplying of final consonants in the writing peculiar to the 
Philippines must have made the reading as much more difficult as the 
writing more easy, or even more so, because the reader was forced to 
supply from the sense of the context the sounds of those consonants 
which were suitable in each case. Habit, however, or some conven- 
tional sign of which we know nothing must have greatly facilitated 
writing when Father Chirino wrote of his time as follows:' " Never- 
theless, without much difficulty thev understand and cause others to 
understand in a marvelous manner, and he who reads supplies with 
great dexterity and facility the consonants which are lacking." This 
might he said undoubtedly of the good readers, hut of them only, for 
from that time on this point has occasioned great difficulty. Hence 
the August'mian Father Lopez was compelled to seek means for facil- 
itating reading. "The necessity for placing the text of the Doc- 
trina 2 in Tagalog script, which is the one most commonly used in 
these islands, was the occasion for the improvement of said system of 

l Op. -it.. Chapter XVII. 

'Tnifi Doctrina was a small catechism ami treatise on Christian doctrine. lie 
wrote it in Qocano, bul with Tagalog characters, and u^-(\ his reform method. 
Father Manilla reproduces the ftrsl page in his work already cited. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 403 

writing, which of itself is so poor and so confused through not having 
any way of writing consonants which are not pronounced with vowels, 
that to the most well- versed linguist it causes trouble, and gives him 
plenty to think about in the case of many words, in order that he 
may give them the pronunciation which the man who wrote them 
ntended. This is the opinion of everyone." 

A little farther down the same author explained his reform as fol- 
lows: "With only a cross ( * ) written with the consonants the writing 
is as complete and exact as the Spanish, if it be considered that the 
* frees the consonants of the vowels, which, according to the old sys- 
tem, were attached to them so that they are pronounced by themselves. 
For example, the letter Jtt> with the cross below it is equivalent to T. 
In order to write the word surat it would be spelled as follows: 

With this simple modification the interpretation of Tagalog writings 
is as easy as the reading of our own characters, for all the sounds are 
expressed, vowels as will as consonants. 

Although in the matter of number of consonants various ones were 
lacking for the expression of the sounds of certain words, this occa- 
sioned them little or no trouble. In place of F they used a P and thus 
they wrote f uego instead of puego. Y took the place of LL, and they 
said Yuvia instead of LLuvia. They used a similar method in writing 
other words, supplying the sounds for which they had no characters 
with other similar sounds, a defect which they retain until to-day, for 
a similar misuse of consonants is still to be heard among the Indians. 

DIRECTION IN WHICH THE WRITING IS FORMED. 

On this point there is a difference of opinion. Without discussing 
the different views, suffice it to say that the probability is that they 
wrote from below upward in columns or vertical lines, beginning at 
the left and ending at the right. Father Colin, S. J., states plainly 
that this was the case. 1 Father Martinez Vigil confirms this state- 
ment, and he had before him a most valuable manuscript of more than 
600 pages on Chinese paper, written in 1609. He makes the following 
statement: 4 ' I can confirm this, because I have examined these books. " s 
Father Ezguerra writes as follows : 3 "They were formerly accustomed 
to write from below upward, and many of them still do it, putting the 
first column at the left. " 

On the other hand it seems certain that some of them wrote hori- 
zontally from left to right, and there are examples of it, but this 
direction was by no means the primitive one, but was used later and 
was learned from the Spanish. 

On account of the lack of authentic documents we can not now defi- 
nitely ascertain whether the direction in which these natives wrote 
was or was not the same as that employed by the Malays. If we 
accept the opinions of certain authors, it is probable that the former 
took the direction from the latter, together with the form and the let- 
ters of their writing, but we have no old manuscripts belonging to 
the Malays, for they have long written in Arabic. 

1 Father Martinez in his Labor Evangelica, Madrid, 1663, p. 54. 

2 In an article entitled La Escritura propria de los tagalos. 

3 On the first page of his Arte already cited. 



404 REPOET OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

MODERN WRITING. 

The old Philippine alphabet which we have thus briefly discussed 
was promptly abandoned by many who adopted the Spanish alphabet 
and language, and little by little all abandoned it, as the Spanish domi- 
nation was pushed to conclusion, and communication with the natives 
became more frequent. As to the ancient characters, Father Totanez 
wrote in 1745 that " It is rare to find an Indian who knows how to 
read them, and extremely rare that one knows how to write them." 
It may be said that they are not even remembered. 1 

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES 
AMONG THEMSELVES AND BETWEEN THEM AND THE MALAY. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

It may be said that the languages or dialects which are spoken in 
the Philippine Archipelago are as numerous as the tribes which inhabit 
it. They display in a wonderful way by the confused mixture of for- 
eign roots of words the confusion of races which, as we have already 
said, has been brought about in the Philippines by long-continued and 
constant crossing between very distinct peoples. It has been further 
noted, and not without surprise, by all who have obtained definite 
information concerning a considerable number of these languages, how 
intimate is the relationship which nearly all of them display to each 
other and to the Malayan tongue. 

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEGRITOS. 

We said "nearly all," because it would not seem that the language 
used by the Negritos displayed this similarity, as Ave shall show m the 
proper place. It is the belief of a number of authors that it differs 
conspicuously from all the others. Among old authorities we shall cite 
only Father Chirino, who says: 2 

There is no one language in the Philippines, as all the languages are bo similar thai 
one caii understand and speak a new one in a few days, so that knowing one is 
almost to know all; only that of the Negrillos is very different, as is the ViscayaD in 
Spain. 

From among modern authors we select Don Jose* de Lacalle, who 
says: 8 

The Negritos, the aborigines of the islands, speak a language uol well known, but 

u hich, 1" judge by its n osyllabic structure and the elements which form it. differs 

completely from the .Malay ami reminds us of a primitive tongue. 

There is no satisfactory reason iov the belief of thoSe \\ ho suppose that the Aetas 
Speak different dialects in each one of the provinces w hich they inhabit. They have 
one language, and if it has lost its pristine purity this is due to contact with peoples 

w ho have come from different places, who ha\c given to each tribe Linguistic pecu- 
liarities peculiar to themselves. 

l The above account of primitive Philippine alphabets has been taken word for 
word from the paper on Ethnography, prepared tor the commission by the Jesuit 
Fathers. The author of the chapter on [diomography seems not to know fact that 

the Tagbanua alphabet is in common use to-day. It is ordinarily written en smooth 

joints of bamboo, although ] have seen paper and pencil used. The characters are 

placed in vertical columns and are w rittcn from helow upward and from left to right. — 
Dean ( '. Worcester. 

his Etelaci6n de los Islas Filipinas, Chapter X V. 

Tierras y razas, p. :M(>. 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 405 

Thus it is observed that the Negritos of North Luzon have adopted words and 
grammatical constructions which differ somewhat from those used by the aborigines 
who inhabit the mountains of the western region. One and all have followed the 
law of attraction which so modifies the structure of any language. To-day the abo- 
rigines use a modified language, which nevertheless retains the characteristics of 
another tongue, the key to which might perchance be found among the old Polyne- 
sian tongues. 

The Jesuit Fathers assure us that the language of the Mamanuas, or 
blacks, of the island of Mindanao, differs very greatly from all the 
other languages spoken in that island. They were able to make a 
comparative study between theMamanua, theManobo, and the Visaya, 
the two languages spoken near it, and noteworthy and radical differ- 
ences were brought out. 1 

PRIMARY LANGUAGES. 

In order to state very briefly how the remaining Philippine languages 
or dialects are related, we select from among them some of the princi- 
pal ones, to which the others may undoubtedly be reduced. These are 
the Ibanag and Ilocano, of North Luzon; the Pangasanan, Pampango, 
and Tagalog, of Central Luzon; the Bicol, spoken in the southern part 
of the same island ; the Bisaj^a, which is in use throughout the islands 
of the same name, and, finally, from among the numerous dialects of 
Mindanao we take the Moro, Mabobo, Montes, or Buquidnon. 

RELATION BETWEEN THESE LANGUAGES AND THE MALAY. 

The relationship or resemblance between two or more languages may 
be sought in two or more ways, either by means of comparison of words 
or by comparing the grammatical construction. This second method, 
which modern philologists prefer, evidently does not exclude the 
former. 

Beginning with the first method, we instance a series of words taken 
from said languages and arranged in columns in order to facilitate 
comparison. (See comparative table following:) 

Nearly all the words contained in this table have a common or very 
similar root. This is seen not only when the Philippine words are 
compared with each other, but also when they are compared with the 
Malay. If, now, we consider the fact that this series might be pro- 
longed until it was two or three times as large, the words always 
showing the same resemblance, and if, on the other hand, we remem- 
ber that all the words compared have to do with common things and 
are of daily use, anyone would note that all of these languages are 
intimately related, so far as one can judge from a study of their roots. 

REPLY TO ARGUMENT. 

After what has been said it seems plain that there is little foun- 
dation for the opinion of various authors that the Filipinos of the 
coast region came originally from tropical America. This opinion 
was founded on the fact that certain Filipino words were found in use 
among the Americans. In Europe itself there are certain words 
which are common to many nations which have different origin, and 
we do not on this account say that their idioms are derived the one 
from the other. 



^his special study will appear in the work already referred to on the races of the 
island of Mindanao. 



406 



KEPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



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KEPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 407 

We must also reject the opinion of the Dutch author Kiedel, who 
supposes that the Visayans have a Macassar origin, for, he says, their 
language has much in common with the dialects of Celebes", but we 
can not take him seriously, because what he quotes as Tagalog is not 
Tagalog, nor is what he quotes as Visaya Visaya. 

It may be objected to the view which we set forth that if all the 
Philippine dialects are of Malay origin it would seem that the different 
tribes which people the Philippines certainly have retained the same 
language. In reply it may be said, first, that they have retained the 
use of very many roots, and especially that these dialects have retained, 
and to-day retain, the same grammatical construction, as we shall see 
later; second, that if the different Philippine peoples have not preserved 
in their purity all of the Malayan words which were at first common 
to them this is due to the fact that the natives of the Philippines are 
naturally corrupters of language and inventors of new terms, modify- 
ing not only the foreign words which they adopt, of which many 
instances might be cited, but even their own. This latter fact has 
been verified with reference to words common to many dialects, as well 
as has the fact that each one of these peoples has given to certain words 
a distinct signification. There is no need.of quoting examples of this, 
for anyone who has had practical experience will admit it at once. He 
who lacks such experience might compare the following words : Langam , 
which in Tagalog means ant and in Visaya signifies bird; cayo, which 
in Tagalog is cloth and in Visaya is wood. There are other terms 
which are common to two or three dialects, but not to the remainder. 

Other causes which undoubtedly must have a great deal of influence 
in the modifications which the Philippine dialects have undergone are 
undoubtedly the wars which the natives have waged against each other 
and against other races, the mixture with other peoples, the separation 
or lack of communication between many of the tribes, and their" liking 
for new words. 

CHANGES IN THE MALAY. 

What may be called a history of the Malayan language will help to 
make clear the point under discussion. According to the Orientalist 
Marsden, the first Malays came from the territory of Menangkabao, 
which lies in the interior of Sumatra between the rivers Djambi and 
Palembang. From thence came the people who founded the cities of 
Malacca, Djhor, and Singapore, in the twelfth century, according to 
the chronicles of Malacca. 

According to the same author the Malayan language of Menangkabao 
is the only one which is not changed, or at least has not undergone any 
such change as that in other parts of Sumatra, Java, and other Malayan 
countries. 

The Malay may have been at first a mixture of Sanskrit and of the 
language or" dialect of the Samangos, Dayacos, and other blacks of the 
mountains of Malacca, which mixture may have been brought about 
after the immigration of the Indians to Java and Sumatra, for the lat- 
ter island is close to the former, and is encountered before reaching 
Java when one comes from India. Said immigration, according to 
Javanese annals, took place seventy-eight years B. G. It is true that in 
the Malay there are found Sanskrit words, and it is the general opinion 
that one of the elements which constitute this language is Sanskrit It 
appears, then, that the Malays may have introduced various ones of the 



408 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

few and extremely rare Sanskrit words which are found in the Philip- 
pine dialects. 

Also the Persa, the Tamil, and other primitive dialects of Java and 
neighboring regions contributed their share to the enrichment of the 
Malay. 

Later Arabic merchants, who were at the same time apostles of the 
Koran, introduced various Arabic words having to do with theolog} 7 , 
metaplrysics, and law. 

It is not strange that the Moros of Mindanao have Arabic words. 
Nevertheless, anyone who knows Visaya will note the moment that he 
studies the Moro language of Sulu that, with the exception of certain 
terms taken from the Koran, which are employed in prayers, and cer- 
tain other words taken from the Malay of to-day, as spoken in Borneo, 
the Sulu language is simply corrupt Visaya. 

AGREEMENT OF THE LANGUAGES SO FAR AS CONCERNS GRAMMATICAL 

STRUCTURE. 

OBSEEVATIONS. 

What has been said as to the ancient Philippine alphabets, that is to 
say, that all can be reduced to one in spite of their various differ- 
ences, may now be applied with equal reason to the Philippine dialects, 
which we have just discussed, especially if it be found that to the 
relationship existing between the roots from which the nouns are 
formed there can be added agreement in the use of particles, forma- 
tion and character of the nouns, structure of sentences, and the whole 
grammatical mechanism. 

PARTICLES. 

The first thing to strike one on examining the morphology of the 
Philippine languages is the large number of particles, which not only 
have a common signification when considered as words, but also agree 
as to the part which they play in the formation of sentences and in the 
signification which they impart to the roots to which they are united. 
We will cite only a few, which may serve as examples. Such arc 
mag, urn, man, maca, magpa, maqui, ma, magca, magsi, pa, etc., in 
Tagalog; mag, maqui, ma, maca, ca, ica, paca, pa, maguin. man. etc., 
in Pampango; urn, pag, panag, macapag, maqui, maquipag, ma, pa, 
paca, mapa, etc., in Ilocano; uni, mag, pag, ma, pa, ca, pagca, naca, 
magpa, maqui, etc., in Bicol; mag, manag, maca, magsi. mangui, man. 
mi, etc., in Pangasinan; mag, ma, niaga, magui, maqui, maca, pa, ca. 
etc., in Ibanag, etc. 

STi;r(TI-KK OK TIIK NOUN. 

If we pass from the particles to the examination of the structure of 
the Qoun, we shall sec that the greater pari of the Malayan rods. 
which arc genuinely so. are of two syllables. This also happens in the 
Philippine dialects. Those of three syllables are of Sanscrit, Arabic, 
or other outside origin. Nevertheless, there arc in the Malay some 
Avoids of throe syllables, although they are rare, and this also takes 
place in the case of the Philippine dialects. Furthermore, it forms 
words of three syllables by means of the interposition of the syllable 
la, and this also oceans in the Philippine languages. The contractions 
of the words are also common. 



BEPOKT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. * 



409 



In Malay, as well as in the dialects of the Philippine Archepelago, a 
root word expresses a generic idea, which is limited and particularized 
by the employment of particles, prefixes or suffixes, or by the place 
which it occupies in the phrase. The Malay like the Filipino forms 
his derivative words, first, by the application of particles, prefixes or 
suffixes, or by two of them at once; second, by the reduplication of 
the root; third, by the union of two words. 

With the particle an as a suffix, there are formed in Malay and in 
the Filipino language, first, verbal substantives; second, nouns which 
indicate the quality of the object; third, collective or generic nouns; 
fourth, nouns indicating place. 

With the particles CA as a prefix and AN as a suffix there are 
formed nouns which have the value of adjectives as well as substantives, 
which indicate what is expressed by the adverb. 

There is also noted conformity in the gender of nouns, in the way of 
forming plurals in what pertains to the cases (which, properly speak- 
ing, none of them have); in numbers; personal, relative, possessive, 
and demonstrative pronouns, etc., in the adjectives which are formed 
from them; and, finally, in the comparative. 



FORM OF THE VERB. 



As for the verb, the Malayan language, like the languages of the 
Philippines, has the peculiarity that its roots when used as verbs are 
not subject to inflection nor change of termination of any sort in order 
to designate the form which the verb may take. The active, passive, 
causative, frequentitive, and reciprocal are determined by means of 
particles. It is also common that verbs may be formed from simple 
substantive adjective or adverbial root. Finally, the Malays, like the 
Filipinos, make much more use of the passive than of the active voice, 
both in spoken and in written language. 

In proof of all that has been said numerous examples might be cited, 
but space does not permit. 



CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 



A notable confirmation of the linguistic harmony for which we have 
been arguing is found in the fact that the grammatical structure of 
sentences has remained the same in all the dialects, both of those who 
people the shores and of those who inhabit the forests of the interior. 
What this form is may be seen from the following comparative table 
of grammatical constructions: 

Comparative table of sentences. 



Tagalog 



Passive in An 



Passive in I . 



Pampango 



Passive in In . 
Passive in An 
Passive in I.. 



Pinaflgangacoan aco nia nang isang ma out- 
ing gamot = He promised me a good 
medicine, or A good medicine was prom- 
ised me by him. 

Jbinigay co yaon baril sa cania = I gave 
him that rifle, or That rifle was given to 
him by me. 

Tauagin mo sia = Call him, or Let him be 
called by you. 1 

Salgabanan mon palay itang labuad = Sow 
rice in that land. 

Jbili me iyang calis = Drop that sword. 



The remaining sentences will be translated only in the active form. 



410 



REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



Comparative table of sentences — Continued. 



Ilocano - 


' Passive in An 

Passive in En 

Passive in I 


Danunmn da iti inapuy = Let them put 

water on the boiled rice. 
Lualuen na ti rosario = Let him count the 

beads of his rosary, 
/ditoy mo dayta = Put that here. 
Tumangan mo siya = Resist him. 
Jbinugtac nia ang bagas digdi = He put 

the rice here. 
Sabihon mo sa iya na pumadigdi = Tell 

him to come. 
Pinuesacan moy cases ed pila=Wash the 

clothes in the trough. 
Dalasen coy Juan = I shall visit John, 
ipuesac coy caoes ed ' pila = Take the 

clothes to the trough to wash. 
fSinudduan na-c = He was taught. 
(Baballayan nu yau = Divide this. 
[Tballao nu pa sa si Jose = Give a part to 

Joseph. 
1 Jpagcunas i ma-c = Give memories from 

me (i. e. , Remember me to them) . 
[ itububu nu yao = Throw that away. 
Si Juan ang acong guisultifcum=He spoke 

to John. 
Jluan mo quini sa sacayan=Load this in 

the boat. 
Bubuhaton co quini=He will do this. 
Inifigayan ac6 isa a pilac=They gave me a 

dollar, 
icalimo co salku a tanto=I like you very 




' Passive in An 

Passive in I 


Bicol - 

Pangasinan - 


Passive in On 

' Passive in An 

Passive in En 

Passive in I 


Ibanag ■ 


Passive in An 

Passive in I 


Visaya - 


' Passive in An 

Passive in I 


Passive in On 

Passive in An 

Passive in I 


Moro Maguinda- \ 
nao. 


Passive in In 

Passive in An 

Passive in I 


much. 
T//;angak nilan su paca en=They carried 

off my friend. 
Bugaycm co din ta ludio=I will give him 

the machete. 
Zindan canio ta candan sa nio a ocunian= 


Manobo - 


Passive in On 

" Passive in An 


Tell them our customs. 

Pudutow nio sa diloc ta amay nio=Take 
your father's lance. 

Ilalkm mo sia ta sulat=Give him the let- 
ter. 

Ziigsac mo ito coon=Put this there. 


Mom t£s . . \ 


Passive in I 




Passive in On 


Ouiton nia iyan tagbis ta eandin =Take 
him this bird. 



Comparison wit}, the McUay. 



1. Radical pas- 
sive in Malay. 

Same in Tagalog. 

Same in Visaya. . 

2. Passive, with 
prefix l>i in 
Malay. 

Same by the in- 
sertion "!' in in 
Tagalog. 

Samewitn prefix 
qui in Visaya. 



I Kcnal-i uleh Kapala 

\ Biapa it u. 

I Qui lala mo eaniiic 

i baga itong olo. 
i [lamocunquinsagui- 
\ nine olo. 
Di puKul hamba . . . 

Die angkal hamba. . 

(Binobono <•«» 
Dinala <•<> 

i ( ruibono co .. 

( Guidala co 



YOU should know whose is this head. 

Yon should know whose is this head. 

Yon should know whose is this head. 

I Ie is struck by me. 

It was taken by me. 
1 Ie is struck by me. 

It was taken hy me. 
He is struck by me. 
It was taken hy me. 






REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 



411 



Comparison with the Malay — Continued. 



3. Passive in An 
in Malay. 



Same in Tagalog. 



Same in Yisaya. . < 



f Aku kudatangan 

suatu pekanja-cm 

lyang amat meskil. 
Ada pun kanaikan 
, raj Suran gajah. 
fAco ang inaabutcm 

n a n g masamang 

gagauin. 
I Ang sinaquian nang 
[ , Hari, i cabayo. 
f Ac6 ang guiabutan 

sa dautan nga bu- 

buhaton. 
Ang guisaquian sa 

hari cabayo man. 



I am the one to whom has come a bad 

piece of business to attend to. 

The animal ridden by the King Suran was 

an elephant. 
I am the one to whom has come a bad 

piece of business to attend to. 

The animal ridden by the King was a 

horse. 
I am the one to whom has come a bad 

piece of business to attend to. 

The animal ridden by the King was a 
horse. 



This proves the harmony between the languages or dialects of the 
Philippines, which in their origin must have been one, since in essen- 
tials they are agreed, even as they are spoken to-day. Other races, 
curiously enough races of Mindanao, preserve the same form of sen- 
tence, so^ it can not be doubted that all of the Filipinos speak in this 
way. If anyone should desire to know, for instance, how the Tirurayes 
and the Sulu natives express themselves, here are examples: 

f Passive in An Nirray cm u Sebaan pilac=They have given 

me a dollar. 
Tiruray -{ Passive in En Uiten mu ini sulat = Carry this letter. 

[ Passive in On Nohocon i fautad=The earth was planted. 

' Passive in An Dihilcm acu nia hambue pilac=Give me a 

dollar. 

Sulu-Moro 1 Passive m * Bmtang cu ing sulat ha teas la mesa=He 

put the letter on the table. 

Passive in Tin j Daahtm mu ing sulat ini=Carrv this let- 

| ter. 

It has been shown then that, with the exception of the Negrito, the 
primary language of the Philippine Archipelago was but one, and that 
derived from the Malay. 

CONFIRMATIONS. 

We can now cite in confirmation of this conclusion the authority of 
many authors who have found for these languages the same parentage 
which we have assigned them. After Father Hervas y Panduro, a 
highly educated Spanish Jesuit, published during the last century cer- 
tain works which are still admired by scientists, using the new com- 
parative method which is to-day preferred in philological investigations, 
and computing that the Philippine languages are dialects of the Malay, 
other philologists who have come later, with few exceptions, have been 
and still are in accord that this assertion is true. After consulting 
Hervas on this point Father Francisco Garcia de Torres, who knew 
well many Philippine languages, replied to him in 1784, with these 
words, among others: 1 

I agree with you in believing that almost all the dialects of the Philippine Islands 
and of other islands near them are dialects of the Malayan language which is spoken 
in Malacca. 



As he states in his work, Catdlogo de las lenguas, Vol. II. 



412 REPORT OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. 

CONCLUSION. 

If one thinks of what might be said the consideration which we have 
given the matter of the idiomography of these islands is very brief, 
especially when one remembers now numerous are these languages or 
dialects and how little known are many of them. But the nature of 
this treatise does not demand more and, on the other hand, we believe 
that what has been said is sufficient for our purpose of making clear 
and confirming the point which we set forth in the beginning as to the 
origin of the tribe. As a matter of fact, the harmony which exists 
between nearly all of the Philippine languages is such as to reduce 
them to a single one closety related with the Malay, which leads to the 
conclusion that this is or comes from the Malay itself, modified and 
changed as we have seen. This conclusion is deduced from the ancient 
alphabets, the common roots, and the analogy in grammatical construc- 
tion, and is in perfect accord with the conclusion reached in the chapter 
on ethnogeny. 

As these languages are closely related to the Malay which is spoken 
from Madagascar and Aden throughout Malasia to tne confines of the 
Indian Ocean, the Philippine peoples also, with the exception of the 
Negritos, were derived in great measure at a more or less remote time 
from the Mala}^an stem. 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Ability of the natives _ 380 

Abra, province of "... " """""""[" ~* 25 

Area and population of ....".'"J. 25 

Boundaries and general conditions of the country 25 

Languagesof _. ___" lllV.V.'-l 26 

Products, industry, and commerce _ _ "___ 26 

River, basin of _ . _ ._'_""" 203 

Towns _ _/___. 25 

Account of the Monteses, or Buguidnones, of Mindanao 392 

Acidulated, carbonic, ferruginous, and bicarbonated waters _ 223 

Aclan River 208 

Active volcanoes (see also Volcanoes) 148 

Affections of the senses, plants used for _ ... 274 

Agave (Agave Americana L. ) _ _ . 253 

Agno Grande River basin . 202 

Agreement of languages in grammatical structure 408 

Agusan River . 213 

Agusip (Melastoma polyanthum Blum) _ 258 

Agutaya Island _ 79 

Ajonjoli (benne seed) 255 

Alabat Island 60 

Alad Island 82 

Alazor (safflower) _ ., 258 

Albay, province of ... 63 

Adjacent islands 64 

Area and inhabitants 63 

Boundaries and general conditions 63 

Languages 64 

Mestizo-Negritos of 350 

Products, industry, commerce, and ways of communication. 64 

Towns. . 63 

Alcoholic plants 264 

Aleurites triloba Bl. (Lumbang) . . 256 

Almacigas (gums) 283 

Alphabet, orthography of the Philippines 401 

a single 399 

Alphabets, ancient ... - 397 

Comparison with other _ _ 400 

Ambos Camarines, province of: 

Limits and general conditions of the country. 61 

Adjacent islands 63 

Area and inhabitants . _ . 61 

Languages . . - 62 

Products, industry, commerce, and ways of communication . _. 62 

Towns . 61 

Amburayan, the comandancia of ..-■» H'^2 

General conditions of. 25 

Industries . . 25 

Anacardiaceae 378 

Analogy between Philippines and Antilles 7 

Analysis of coal from Bataan 233 

springs, table of 218 

Ananasa dativa Lindley (pineapple) 252 

Anchorages, (see also Ports) - - 163 

Ancient alphabets of the Philippine peoples, concerning 397 

Anil — 257 

Anona squamosals, (ates) - 278 

413 



414 INDEX. 

Page. 

Anonaceae. _ 278 

Antidotes, plants used as . 275 

Antique, province of _ _ 85 

Area and inhabitants _ 85 

Boundaries 85 

Language _ , — 85 

Number of towns, villages, and parishes 85 

Products, industries, commerce, and ways of communication 85 

Ants 326 

Apayaos, comandancia of . _. 10,20 

General conditions of 20 

Apo Volcano ... __ _ -__ 150 

Arachis hypogcea L. (peanut) - , 256 

Arayat Volcano _ _ ... 150 

Archipelago divided into naval districts _ 12 

islands which form the 7 

of Jolo, and the islands of La Paragua, Balabac, etc . 119, 193 

Philippine, situation and boundaries 7 

Archipelagoes of Batanes, Babuyanes, and islands of Polillo and Cantandu- 

anes . . - .- 168 

Area, geographical position, territorial division, number of inhabitants, and 

density of population .- 8 

A renga saccharifera Labill. (cabo-negro) r 253 

Arganan River 215 

Argument, confirmative (natives of Mindanao) 338 

reply to (relation of languages) 405 

Army of the Philippines . _ _ 11 

Aromatic plants 267 

Arrecif e Island . . . . 127 

Arrival, time of (Moros) - 338 

Arrowroot . . - _ - 2(50 

Cultivation of 260 

Arthropoda .. 325 

Asin spring . . ._ __. 226 

Ates (Anona squamosa h.) .... _ _ 278 

Attas, customs of the .. .-. 390 

Babuyan Island 69 

Babiiyan Volcano .. ... 119 

Babuyanes (see Batanes) 68 

Babuyanes, Camiguin de, volcano 149 

Bacauan (Rhizophoro tinctoria L.) 259 

Bacon Island 103 

Bacon Volcano 149 

Bagobos, the 369 

Bagsang (Metroxylon rumphii Mart. ) 261 

Bahiade las Islas '(island bay) . - -. 127 

Balaan, the province of: 

Adjacent islands ... I s 

Area and inhabitants _ ._ - 47 

Boundaries and general conditions.. 47 

Balabac, tin: island of . 124 

Hydrography _. ... 193 

Anchoring grounds ... 197 

Bays and coves 197 

Capes.. . . . ..... _ 197 

Islands adjacent to -- - 128 

Language ... _ 125 

Mountains - 146 

Number of inhabitants . - L25 

Number of towns, villages, and parishes 125 

Products . 125 

Balanguingui Islands, bavs, ports 198 

r>ala.nsnngain Island... -- 125 

Balanti (Homolanthus populifolius R. Grab.) — 259 

Balizan Island 105 

Bamboo .. 246 

Bancuro (Mori ml a I i net Or i<i Koxb.) 258 



INDEX. 415 

Page. 

Banahao Volcano _ _ 151 

Banga, Pagahan ( Caryota urens L. ) _ _ 262 

Bangag River _ ~""~1_I~_. 202 

Banton Island _ _ 175 

Banton Bay _ _ 175 

Basay (Batan) 68 

Basilan, the island, province of (see Mindanao) ... 113 

Bay, points, ports _' 192 

Mountains . _ . '_[ 145 

Basilan, Isabela de... 12 

Basin of the Abra '_'_'_ 203 

Agno Grande 202 

Grande de Lagayan ~ 201 

Rio Grande de la Pampanga 203 

Bataan, analysis of coal from ..„_ 233 

Bataan, the province of: 

Languages, towns 47 

Products, industries, and ways of communication 48 

Batan Island 65, 68 

Batanes and Babuyanes ' 70 

Languages, towns ... 70 

Products, industry, and ways of communication . . 70 

Archipelagoes of, and islands of Polillo and Catanduanes 168 

Mountain ranges 142 

Bays and coves— 

Polillo 169 

Batanes ,. 168 

Catanduanes _ 169 

Points— 

Catanduanes __ ..... ; 169 

Polillo 169 

Ports and anchorages — 

Catanduanes _. _ __ 169 

Babuyanes : 169 

Batad ( sorghum) _ 246 

Bataglsland 103 

Batangas, the province of _ 11,57 

Area and inhabitants , 57 

Boundaries and general conditions . ,. 57 

Languages, towns _ _ .. _ 57 

Products, industry, commerce, and ways of communication 57 

Industries _ 58 

Batrachians, reptiles, etc. 317 

Bays. (See Gulfs.) 

Bay, lake of - 205 

Bay of San Pablo, bay of San Pedro 102 

Bejuco (rattan) 253 

Beliefs, practices, superstitions, and religious hierarchy (Moros of Sulu) _ . . 372 

Benguet, the province of ... 11,30 

Area and inhabitants - 31 

Boundaries and conditions 30 

Languages, towns 31 

Products, agriculture, industry, commerce, and ways of communica- 
tion 31 

Benne seed (Sesama ajonjoli, Sesamum orentale L. ) 255 

Betel or itmo (Piper betel L.) 272 

Bicarbonated waters , _ 223 

(alkaline) .- 223 

BicolRiver .- 204 

Bicols, the characteristics of 360 

Biliran: 

Island, ports, bays _ _ „ - 185 

Points .- .— 186 

Mountains - 143 

Binatangan . _ : ... 11 

Binobresan Springs , 226 



416 INDEX. 

Page. 
Binatangan: 

General conditions 84 

Adjacent islands, languages 34 

Binondo 50 

Birds :... 312 

Bisaya Islands (see Visayas) 175 

Marine hydrography _ 175 

Terrestrial hydrography 207 

Boayan Island ". _ _ 126 

Bcehmeria nivea (ramie) 252 

Bohol, the island of: 
Adjacent islands- 
Northern coast _■ _ 96 

Eastern coast. . . 96 

Southern coast ._. _ 96 

Western coast _ 96 

Area, inhabitants .. 95 

Boundaries, general characteristics 95 

Languages, towns 95 

Hydrography — 

Bays-. - 181 

Ports, points 182 

Mountains 144 

Products , industry, ways of communication 96 

Rivers . 211 

Zoological position of _ 314 

Bolaboran Springs 226 

Bombon (Taal)Jake of _ 205 

Bongo Island.. ._ 126 

Bontoc, the comandancia of: 

Area and inhabitants.. ._ 26 

Boundaries and general conditions ..... 26 

Languages, towns, products, and commerce ... , 27 

Borneo, the natives of _ 341 

Botany.. 244 

Bowen Island 127 

Box making, woods for 302 

Bromelia ananas L. (pineapple) .. 252 

Brazilian tobacco. ( See Tobacco.) 

Buad Island 101 

Bubuan Island _ 118 

Buena Serial (Suluan) Island 116 

Bugsuc Island 128 

Buffalo, water (carabao) 309 

Buguidnones of Mindanao 392 

Bulacan, the province of: 

Area and inhabitants 43 

Boundaries and general conditions 43 

Languages, towns _ . 43 

Products, industry, commerce, ways of communication, mines . 44 

BuluanLake 216 

Bulusun Volcano - - - 149 

Buri ( Corypha tunbraculifera L. ) . - 260, 266 

Buri Island 100 

Burias Island: 

Area and inhabitants . 75 

Boundaries and general conditions 74 

< Ion imeroe, town, products 75 

Mountains , 142 

Hydrography — 

Bays 173 

Points, ports 174 

Busuanga Island 78 

Butulan Volcano . 151 

Buyo de anis ( Piper anisorum Bl. ) - 272 

Caanipa Island. .... 126 

Cabad Spring... . 225 

Cabacan River 213 



INDEX. 417 

Page. 

Cabagaoan, comandancia of go 

Cabal ete Island. . _" go 

Cabinet work, woods for .".."".."" 301 

Cabo-negro (Arenga saccharifera Labill. , Caryopa onusia Bl. ) " .'_ _ 253 

Cabuluan Islands 77 

Cabuluan Grande Islands ~ "" _ 99 

Cacahuate (peanut) ~~" 256 

Cacnary Island. _ YJiV. 65 

Cadlayo Island _.. * 127 

Cagayan, province of, and island of Palani. . _ 18 

Area and inhabitants. 18 

Boundaries and general conditions 18 

Towns ... . 18 

Cagayan, dialects, products, industry, commerce 19 

Cagayan, basin of the river Grande de 201 

Cagayan de Jolo _ _ . 125 

Cagayhan Island 103 

Calamianes and Cuyos islands 77 

Area and inhabitants ._ 77 

Islands and towns _ 77 

Languages and products _ 79 

Hydrography .... . 171 

Mountains 143 

Port 172 

Calayan Island. _ 69 

Cal ay o Volcano. 157 

Calanjaman Island 105 

Calinga (definition) 18 

Calintan Island.. 100 

Calumpij an Island. _ 105 

Caluya Island 74 

Camarines, Ambos (see Ambos) _ _ _ 61 

Camarines, the Negritos of, south 391 

Camiguin Island __ 69 

Points, ports 192 

Camiguin de Babuyanes Volcano 149 

Camiguin del Sur Volcano 149 

Camoting cahoy , cassava, etc 260 

Campo Island — 79 

Camotes Island 105 

Canal de Tanabatas _ .. .. 101 

Cana Island -~ 127 

Canayan Island -- .-... 127 

Candaguit Spring ... _ 224 

Canlaon or Malaspina Volcano - 149 

Canoes, woods for. - 301 

Capes and points: 

Balabac - - 197 

Biliran - 186 

Bohol.. - 182 

Burias 174 

Catanduanes _ - 169 

Cebu, western coast . 181 

Daran - 184 

Guimaras - - • 178 

Jolo 194 

Leyte, north, east, south, and west coasts . . — 185, 186 

Luzon, Manila Bay, east, north, west, south, and southwest coasts. _ . 167, 168 

Lubang . 173 

Maestro de Campo 176 

Marinduque. - 173 

Masbate 174 

Mindanao, north, west, south, and east coasts, and adjoining islands. 191, 192 

Mindoro, north, east, south, and west coasts ...... 172, 173 

Negros, north, east, south, and west coasts _ . . 179 

Panaon 186 

P C — VOL 3 — 01 45 



418 INDEX. 

Page. 
Capes and points — Continued. 

Pangiao ... 182 

Paragua, eastern coast . . 197 

Pasay, north, east, south, and west coasts .. 178 

Polillo 169 

Romblon 176 

Samar , north, east, south, and west coasts 183, 184 

Semerara ..... . „ . _ 173 

Sibuyan 176 

Siquijor 182 

Tablas 176 

Tiaco 174 

Ylin __ 173 

Capias Island _. 125 

Capital, Manila 48 

Capiz, province or district of: 

Area, boundaries, general conditions ._ 86 

Inhabitants, towns, villages, parishes . 86 

Products, industry, commerce, ways of communication 87 

Capul Island 100 

Carabao (water buffalo) 309 

Carabao Island . _ . . . _ 81 

Carbonic, etc. , waters 223 

Caricaceae ... . 280 

Carthamnns tinctorius L. (safflower) __ 258 

Caryopa onusta Bl. (cabo-negro) 253 

Caryota 07iusta Bl. (cauong) 261,266 

Caryota urens L. (pagahan or banga) 262, 266 

Cases of various other peoples (Ethnography) 344 

Casipitan Spring 224 

Cassava, yucca, camoting cahoy (Jatropha maniliot L. ) . 260 

Castor oil (Ricino) ( Ricinits communis L. ) . . 256 

Catanduanes, province or district of: 

Area, inhabitants, boundaries, conditions 65 

Languages, towns 65 

Products, ways of communication .. 65 

Adjacent islands 06 

Mountain ranges . 143 

Hvdrography. {See Batanes.) 

Rivers 207 

Caua Volcano 150 

Cauit River 204 

Cauong (Caryota onusta Bl.). 261,266 

Caverna. La, Island .. \'21 

Caves of Sajoton 102 

Cavite, province or district of: 

Area, inhabitants, boundaries, conditions ~> 1 

Products, industry, commerce, ways of communication, languages 52 

Port. . 163 

Cayapa, Comandancia de 32 

Cebu. island of: 

Area, inhabitants, boundaries, conditions . 1)2 

Towns, etc. ; products, etc. 93 

Adjacent islands 94 

Adjacent islands on the north 95 

Mountains 144 

Marine hydrography— 

Bays and coves 180 

Ports and anchorages. 180 

Points 181 

Rivers 209 

Petroleum 234 

Census adopted 5 

< nil, of population 10 

official 8 

Center provinces. Luzon (A) and (B) 17 

Changes in the Malay language. _ 407 



INDEX. 419 

Channels ggo 

Character and customs of the Moros "llllll III llllll] 370 

Observations on " 370 

Character and general manner of life of the Moros of Sulu "I " 371 

Character of the Indians 373 

Characteristics of the Bicols and Tagalogs ...... I. 360 

more important (Malays) ll.llll.lllll.il 356 

other, and other tribes 361 

general (Negritos) ~~ ~ 347 

Chico de la Pampanga River __'""_" lllll 204 

Chinese and Japanese, the ".lllllllll. 340 

Chlorated, sodic, bi carbonated, and calcic waters ...-"""""_""." 226 

sodic-calcic waters "."""__ . ~~L~_ 226 

Chorography _ _ " '.l.ll.l llll ~ 11 

Chocolate ( Tliedbromo cacao L.) ....... 271 

Cultivation of ..."."111..".../ 271 

Churches, Manila. _ _ .11" I 49 

Cinnamon (Cinnamonum burmanni Blum. , Laurus cinnamonum Blanco) III 272 

Circulatory apparatus, plants used for _ _ _ 274 

Civil census ... ,._ _ " 10 

Classification which we adopt _. 345 

Coal llllllll 240 

Analysis of, from Bataan _ __ 233 

Coast lines, Luzon _ _ _. 14 

Cobrador Island _ .._ 11^... 82 

Cocoanut ( Cocos nucifera L. ) _ 265 

Coelentrata, etc _ 326 

Coffee (Coffea arabica L.), history.. _ 269 

Specie's and varieties — 

Coffea arabica, Coffea racemosa __ 269 

Coffea laurina, Coffea liberica _ 270 

Cultivation _. _ 270 

Cogon grass (Saccharum Menigii Retz) 246 

Colocasia esculentia Schott (gabe) _ __ 248 

Colony, the European 344 

Comandancias, new 10 

Comandancias described: 

Ainburyan _ 25 

Apayaos _ _ 20 

Benguet 30 

Binatangan _ 34 

Bontoc ... ,_ 26 

Cabagaoan _ 20 

Cayapa... _ 32 

Itaves 21 

Infanta . . 44 

Lepanto 29 

Llavac . „ _ 28 

Principe - _. 33 

Quiangan ._ 29 

Saltan 28 

Tiagan _ 24 

Command of the naval station . 12 

Comparative table of words 406 

sentences _ .. . _ 409 

Comparison with other alphabets ..... 400 

the Malay, table 410 

Concepcion, the province or district of: 

Area, boundaries, number of inhabitants 89 

Towns, villages, parishes, products, industry . . 89 

Concerning the ancient alphabets of the Philippine people. 397 

Conclusion (language) ... 412 

(Philippine Indians) *.. , 385 

Conditions, various ethnological - 344 

Confirmative argument (natives of Mindanao) 338 

Confirmations (language) 411 

Cono Island 126 



420 INDEX. 

Page 

Considerations, preliminary (ethnology) _.. _ 344 

Construction of sentences . _ _. 409 

Copper _ 235,240 

Coral 238,239 

Coron, Penon de, Island 78 

Corn (Zea mays L.) - 245,266 

Corregidor, the province or district of, and the adjacent islands: 

Boundaries and conditions 52 

Languages, light-house _. 53 

Adjacent islands 54 

Port... 164 

Corypha umbracidifera L. (buri) _ . 265, 266 

Cottabato (see Mindanao) 113 

Cottabato Springs _ _ 226 

Cotton ( Gossypium herbaceum L. ) 257 

Cultivation and preparation _ . . 257 

Coves. (See Gulfs.) 

Crater Lake, Taal (composition) 222 

Cuatro Islas Group __ _ 105 

Culaman River. _ „._. 213 

Culion Island 78 

Cultivation of Manila hemp 250 

cotton 251 

Cumalon (Diospyros cunalon A. DC.) .. 259 

Customs and usages of the Philippine peoples 366 

of the Attas 390 

Indonesian tribes 392 

Moros . 370 

Negritos found in the Philippines 389 

Customs, various . .. 383 

which are most widely spread (Negritos) 389 

Cuyos Islands (see Calatnianes) . . 77 

Cuyos Islands (hydrography) _.. 171 

Cuyos Island _ 78 

Cuyo (Gran Cuyo) ., 78 

Data adopted _ 5 

Dalupiri Island 69 

Dalupiri (Hog) Island 100 

Daram, points of _ _ 184 

Daran, island. _ 101 

Davaos, the Moros of the Gulf of 365 

Davao, the province of (see Mindanao) 112 

Dependencies of the naval station . . 12 

Density of population, table 8 

Didica Volcano .. 119 

Digestive apparatus, plants used for . . — 273 

Dinagat Islands - 116 

Dinagat Mountains. _. 145 

Din ata Volcano 151 

DingalaBay .*. 158 

Diospyros cunalon A. DC. (cumalon) 259 

Diseases of the head, plants used for ... . 273 

Diseases of plants from which oil is obtained 354 

District. (See Province.) 

Divisions, military.. . 11 

Division of the race (Negrito) 317 

Diuretics, plants used asV 276 

Doong Islands .. 95 

I )umaran Island . . . 138 

Dyes and starches, plants producing - 257 

Eastern Negros. . 91 

Ebenacece .. 278 

Echinobermata, vermes, Ccelenterata, Protozoa 338 

Ecija Nueva (see Nueva E. ) 38 

Epidemics -- 10 

Estimate of population (parochial) 10 

Establishment in this country, their (Moros) 339 

Ethnography .... 329 

Ethnographic theory .. 343 



INDEX. 421 

Page. 

Ethnological conditions, various 344 

Ethnological table _ _ _ 355 

Ethology ._ _ 389 

European mestizos .. 343 

European colony 344 

Examinations made (springs) ■ 217 

Existence of springs 217 

Extinct volcanoes. (See Volcanoes. ) 

Ferruginous, etc., waters .... __ 223 

Febrifuges, plants used as „ 276 

Fiber-producing plants . . . ._,__, 250 

Method of obtaining (pineapple) 252 

Fine woods, timber and ... 287 

List of, etc 288 

Fishes 319 

Fleet, the 12 

(Moros of Sulu) 374 

Font Island 69 

Force, the marine infantry 13 

Forces, naval . . . 11 

Form of the verb 409 

Fraser Island 128 

Frijol (vegetable) _. 247 

Fruit trees 278 

Fuga Island : 69 

Gabe (Colocassa esculenta Schott) -. 248 

Gallina and Los Polios islands, La — . _ 126 

Garden plants _ . - - - 248 

Garden plants, principal species cultivated in the Philippines 248 

General characteristics (Indionese) 351 

(Negritos) ._.. _•..._.-_ 347 

origin of the Indians ... . _ 336 

geographical data with respect to the particular islands of the 

Philippine Archipelago ... 131 

organization of the navy 11 

Geology, mineral resources and - _. .._ 231 

Geographical position, table — 8 

Geraniacece 279 

Gibon River - 214 

Gibuson Islands 117 

Gipdo Island 116 

Gold 234,240 

Gossypium herbaceum L. (cotton) . - - - 251 

Gramneous plants (grasses) 244 

Grammatical structure. (See Agreement.) 

Gran Cuyo 78 

Grande, Agno, river basin 202 

Grande de Cagayan, river basin of the _ . _ _ 201 

Grasses (gramneous plants) - - 244 

Guiantacan Island 95 

Guimanoc Island 102 

Guimasas Island 84 

Bays, port - - 177 

Mountains --■ 144 

Points 178 

Guisoc (Talicut) Island 116 

Gulf of Davao, Moros of the 365 

Gulfs, bays, and coves 157 

Balabac -- 197 

Banton . — 175 

Basilan. --- -- Ijj* 

Batanes Archipelago 168 

Biliran 185 

Bohol, east, south, and west coasts.- --.- - 181,182 

Burias 173 

Calamianes --- - 171 

Catanduanes _..' -- 169 

Cebu, east and west coasts 180 



422 INDEX. 

Page. 
Gulfs, bays, and coves — Continued. 

Dingala - 158 

Guimaras ._ _ _ 177 

Jolo _ _ __ 193 

Lamon _ _ .. 158 

Lapog . __ . 158 

Leyte, east, south, and west coasts . __ 184 

Lingayen _ . 157 

Luzon, small bays, etc. — 

West coast . 159 

North and east coasts 160 

South coast -._ _. 161 

Southwest coast _ 163 

Lubang ._. _ _. 171 

Manila... ... 157 

Marinduque _ . . . _ _ _ 170 

Masbate . . 173 

Mindanao, north, south, west, and east coasts. 187, 188 

Mindoro, north, east, south, and west coasts 169, 170 

Negros, north, east, southwest, and west coasts 178, 179 

Panay, north, east, and west coasts - 176, 177 

Panglao . _ 182 

Paragua, west and east coasts. _ . 194, 195 

Polillo 169 

Romblon 175 

Saraar, northwest, north, south, and west coasts _ . 182, 183 

San Miguel .. 158 

Semerara 171 

Sibuyan 175 

Siquijor.. _ 182 

Tablas 175 

Tiaco 174 

Gum resins _ 283 

Gums (Almacigas) _ 283 

Gutta percha 284 

Guttiferae 279 

Head of system (Mindoro Mountains) 135 

Plants used for diseases of the head _ . 273 

Hemp, Manila (Musa textilis): 

Cultivation of 250 

Enemies of . . 251 

Production and prices 1 251 

Hierarchy, religions of (Moros of Sulu) _. .. 372 

Hierba Island 126 

Hog Island (Dalupiri) .. 100 

Homalanthus populifolius R. Gran, (balanti) _ 259 

Honorable occupations, more _ . _ . 383 

Hormiga Island 127 

House building, woods for 301 

Humayan River _. .. 214 

Hydrography, Luzon and adjacent islands . 157 

Ibajay River 208 

Idiomography 397 

Igorrote (note) ... -5 

thanan River 314 

lloilo, the district of: 

Area, inhabitants, boundaries, conditions . 87 

Towns, products, industry, etc .... 88 

Ding group of islands ...... 73 

Illaua Bay, the Moros of 364 

Ilocos, north: 

Area, inhabitants, boundaries, and condition . . 21 

Towns.. ...... 21 

Dialects, agriculture, industry, and ways of communication 22 

Ilocos, south 11 

Area, population, boundaries, condition . .... 22 

Towns, dialects, products, agriculture, industry, commerce, and ways 

of communication 23 

Nearest islands 24 



index. 423 

Page. 

Indians, general origin of 336 

character of the . _ "...'.." 378 

Indigo (Anil) (Indigofera tinctoria L. ) 257 

Cultivation, uses '.'... 257 

Indonesian tribes .. _ ...... ...... 352 

General characteristics . 351 

Usages and customs of _ 392 

Infanta, comandancia of: 

Area, inhabitants, boundaries, conditions 44 

Towns, languages, products, industry, and ways of communication"." 45 

Infantry force, the marine 13 

Influence of volcanoes on land formation in the Philippines 147 

Instruction, public (Manila) ._ _ 49 

Intermarriage of the races , 340 

Introduction.,. ...... 7,131,243,307 

Ipomea batatas Lamk (sweet potatoes) 247 

Important characteristics, more (Malay) . . _ 356 

lsarog volcano 151 

Isabela de Basilan, islands adjacent to 118 

Isabela, the province of, and the comandancias of Saltan and Llavac 27 

Isabela: 

Area, inhabitants, boundaries, condition, towns . . 27 

Languages, products, industry, commerce, agriculture, and ways of 

communication 28 

Islands described: 

Agulaya 19 

Alabat . . _ ._ 60 

Alad _ ... 82 

Arrecif e _ _ 127 

Babu yanes _ 68, 69 

Bacon _ 103 

Balabac _ _ 124 

Balansungain ._' _ 125 

Balanguengui .... 193 

Balizan _ 105 

Banton _ 175 

Basilan. 113,145 

Basay or Batan . _ 68 

Batag , -. 103 

Batan _ _ . . - 65 

Batanes group _ _ 58 

Biliran. 143 

Bisaya (Visaya) _. 175 

Boayan _ 126 

Bohol .. -- 95 

Bongo .- -.- 115 

Bowen ... --_ 127 

Buad... --.- - 101 

Bubuan 118 

Buena Senal 116 

Bugsuc - - - - 128 

Burias ..-. 74 

Buri 100 

Busuango 78 

Caanipa . . 126 

Cabulan Grande group _ 99 

Cabulan group - - 77 

Cabalete 60 

Cacnary. 65 

Cadlao - - 129 

Cagayan de Jolo - - 125 

Cahagayan - -. - 103 

Calintan . - 100 

Calamianes - 77 

Calayan .- - 69 

Caluya 74 

Calangaman - J-JJjJ 

Camandag 10 ° 



424 INDEX. 

Islands described — Continued. Page. 

Camiguin 69,117,145 

Campo _ _ _ 79 

Camotes - - 105 

Canahanan 100 

Cana... ... 127 

Canayan 127 

Canigao _ _ _ _ _ 125 

Capias 125 

CapuJ 100 

Carabao . _ 81 

Catanduanes _. 95 

Cebu 92 

Cobrador 82 

Comocutuan . _ _ 127 

Cono 126 

Cuatro Islas group 105 

Culion 78 

Cuyo, Gran 78 

Cuyos 77,78 

Dalupiri 69 

Dalupiri (Hog) 100 

Daran _ ..__ .. ._ 101 

Dinagat.. 116,145 

Doong group _ 95 

Dumaran. _. 128 

Fraser 128 

Fuga.. „ 69 

Gibuson _ _ 117 

Gigantangan 105 

Gipdo _ 116 

Guimanoc 102 

Guisoc 116 

Guimaras _ . ~ - . . 84 

Hierba 126 

Hormiga 127 

Ilaro 69 

Iling group 73 

Inidabun group 115 

Itbayat 69 

Jolo 119,145 

Juanbuyod _ 126 

Juanbuyatan 127 

Labing. 96 

LaCaverna.. 137 

Lagen -- 127 

Laguan ... - . 103 

La Gallina 105 

Lamasang 105 

Leyte - 103 

Libusan 100 

Libucan-Daco . . 100 

Limbancanayan 100 

Linacapan .. 77 

Lintarcan _ 101 

LosPoiios iaa 

Lubang group (Lubiag Islands) 73 

Mactan ..... M 

Maestre de Campo 176 

Malanao - 137 

Malipano 116 

Malhon - 116 

Malinipa 118 

Malamani 118 

Malapacun - 125 

Malapina. 126 

Malapascua 95 

Malubulglubut ~~ 

Manglas 126 



index. 425 

Islands described — Continued. Page. 

Manicani ... _ __ .__;___ 102 

Maripipi _ " ..."S.S.LV.SS.S". 105 

Marinduque group ...".. 73 

Masbate _ ./__[.["" 75 

Masinloc _ _ _ 126 

Meara... ~_ ".__"'". 128 

Mesa ~~~" 100 

Mindanao ll'IY- 107 

Mindoro _ 71 

Nabucat 74 

Nacodo „ 126 

Nanga. _ ..... 77 

Naranjos _ 100 

Negros. .-_ 90 

Nongalao _ 77 

Oanioan _ 116 

Olango. .__ ... 94 

Olutanga.. _ 115 

Orejas deLiebre... 118 

Pagdilao Grande 61 

Pagdilao Chico _ 61 

Palani . . _. __ 20 

Pambigan group _ 115 

Pan-de-Azucar _ _ 84 

Panglao _ , ._ 96 

Pangantan group 74 

Panaon .. ._ _ _. __ 106 

Panay. 176 

Paragua 122 

Parasan _ 101 

Pasig „_ 60 

Penon-de-Coron 78 

Pilas 118 

Pujaga 116 

Rapurapu . . _ _ 64 

Rasa or Kataguin .. 127 

Rita :. 126 

Romblon group 80 

Romblon Island 81 

Sacol 117 

Sagarayan 115 

Salomague . .. 24 

Samar _ 98 

Sangbois ... 118 

San Miguel 65 

Sarangani _ 115 

Saptan 68 

Sequijor _ 97 

Semerara group 74 

Siargao •-- 145 

Sibay _ 74 

Sibolon 74 

Sibuyan 82 

Siete Pecados.... -- 84 

Similon _ 117 

Sinonog _ 118 

Suluan. --- 116 

Sumilon. _ - 94 

Tablas — - - 81 

Tabualla - 101 

Tagapula -- - 100 

Talicut. - — HO 

Talim (Talin) - - -- 55 

Taluran - 126 

Tanmuc 11 ° 

Tanaban... -- 101 

Tangad-Libucan -- 100 



426 INDEX. 

Islands described — Continued. Page. 

Tanabaay .. 101 

Tanabon 101 

Tapcantana _ _ 118 

Tapintan.. 126 

Tapul 126 

TawiTawi 145 

Teinga 118 

Tibinil... ... ._ 95 

Ticlin 100 

Ticala... _ 115 

Tictiran 117 

Timaco 115 

Trout 69 

TresPicos _._ 126 

Tuac ...__ 100 

Tumalutan.. _ 118 

Urzula.... 127 

Uson 78 

Vaschi group 70 

Verdes 128 

Viri group . . _ 99 

Visayas (A) 80 

Visayas (B) 90 

Visayas (C) 98 

Ylin _ 172 

Island bay (Bahia de las Islas) _ _ 127 

Islands of Paragua, Balabac, Cagayan de Jolo, and adjacent islands 122, 125 

Islands which form the archipelago 7 

adjacent to Isabela de Basilan _ 118 

Luzon 17,68,206 

Islas Cuatro - 105 

Itaves, comandancia of 11,21 

General conditions of 21 

Itbayat island _ _ 69 

Itmo {Piper betellj.) (betel) 272 

Jalur River _ 20? 

Japanese, the Chinese and 340 

Jolo group _. _ 8, 119 

Jolo archipelago: 

Boundaries and area , .. 119 

First and second group. 119 

Third and fourth group 120 

Number of inhabitants, languages 121 

Important products, towns, villages, parishes .. 121 

Hydrography— 

Bays and coves 193 

Points, ports, and anchorage 194 

Mountains 145 

Juanbuyod Island 120 

Juanbuyatan Island - 127 

Jungle fowl (G alius Gallus Linn.) 315 

Kataguin (Rasa) Island 127 

Labnung Island 96 

La Caverna Island _ 127 

La Gallina and Los Polios islands 136 

Lagen Island . . 127 

Laguan Island 103 

Lakes of Bay and Bombon (Taal) 205 

other noteworthy 206 

Lake of Buluan 216 

Lanao . 216 

Linao 216 

Lignasan 216 

Mainit 21.6 

Naujan 206 

Panguil 216 

Composition of Taal crater 222 



INDEX. 427 

La Laguna, the province of: Page. 

Area and inhabitants _ „ 55 

Boundaries and general conditions 55 

Languages, towns... ... ~~~~~~ 56 

Products, industries, commerce, and ways of communication 56 

Lamasang Island ... . 105 

Lamon Bay . . . " " _ " 158 

Lanao, the province of (see Mindanao) ._ _ 114 

Lake ..." 216 

Morosof ._ 364,374 

Language of the Negritos. _ 404 

Languages and the Malay, relationship between these 405 

primary 405 

Relationship of these with Malay 404 

Observations _ 404 

Lanot Spring _ 223 

LapogBay _- 158 

La Pampanga, basin of the Rio Grande de 203 

River, Chico de 204 

Laurus cinnamonum Blanco (cinnamon) . _ . __ 272 

Las Islas, Bahia de 127 

Lead and silver 236 

Legumes 247 

Lepanto and Quiangan, comandancias of _ 11,29 

Lepanto: 

Area, inhabitants, boundaries, conditions _ _ _ 29 

Languages, towns, products, industry, commerce 29 

Leyte, island of: 

Area and inhabitants 104 

Boundaries and general aspect . _ 103 

Languages, towns ... ... . . 104 

Products, industry, and ways of communication 104 

Adjacent islands, north, west, and south coast 105 

Mountains _.. 143 

Hydrography — 

Harbors, coves, and bays _ ._ 184 

Points, ports, and anchorage 185 

Rivers ._ 210 

Libucan group . _. 100 

Libucan-Daco ... ... _ 100 

Light-house, Corregidor 53 

Liguasan Lake ... 216 

Limbancanayan Island 100 

Linao Lake 216 

Linacapan Island. ... 77 

Lines, coast, Luzon 14 

Lingayan Gulf _ 157 

Lintarcan Island 101 

List of Philippine woods, etc. 288 

Llavac, comandancia de 11,28 

Los Polios Islands.... 126 

Lubang group _ 73 

Lubang Island . . 73 

Hydrography — 171 

Points „ . . 1[3 

Lumbang (Aleurites triloba Bl. ) .... . 256 

Lumbia or Lumbay (Metroylon silvestre Mart. ) _ . _ , - 261 

Luzon: 

Adjacent islands .. 17,68,206 

Birds _ .-- 312 

Four principal rivers 201 

Hydrography — 

Bays, gulfs. 157 

Small bays and coves . . 159 

East and north coast - - - - 160 

South coast 161 

Southwest coast - 163 

West coast 159 



428 INDEX. 

Luzon — Continued. Page. 
Hydrography — Continued. 
Capes and points— 

East, north, and west coast , ._ ___ 167 

Manila Bay.. 167 

South and southwest coast.- 168 

Ports and anchorages — 

East and north coast . 165 

Manila Bay .. _. 163 

South and southwest coast 166 

West coast 164 

Boundaries of provinces of . . : 14 

Geographical situation, shape of _. 14 

System of mountain ranges 133 

Caraballos Occidentalis _ 133 

Most important mountains 135 

In adjacent islands ..___. 141 

Nucleus of _. 133 

Range of the east and southeast. 134 

Sierra Madre 134 

Territorial divisions — 

North.... _ 17,18 

Center (A) _ 17,35 

Center (B) _. 17.47 

South (A) 17,59 

South (B) r 17 

Total area and population 16 

Cagayande.. .. . 18 

North and adjacent islands 18 

Macaturin Volcano 150 

Mactan Island . . .. 94 

Magaso Volcano 151 

MagatRiver 202 

Maize, or Indian corn (Zea mays L. ) 245, 266 

MainitLake 216 

Mainit Spring 224 

Malamaui Island _ 118 

Malapacun Island ._ 125 

Malanao Island _ 127 

Mai apascua Island _ 95 

Malapina Island _ _ 126 

Malipano Island _ 116 

Malaspina (Canlaon) Volcano 149 

Malays, divisions of the race 356 

First subrace, Malay-Negritos _ 356 

Tableof _. ... 359 

Second subrace, Malay-Chinese ... 360 

Characteristics of the Bicols and Tagalogs 360 

Third subrace. Malay-Mohammedans . . 363 

The Morosof Sulu. 363 

Malhon Island _ _ 116 

Malinipa Island _ 118 

Malupali River 212 

Maluglubut Island _ _ 77 

Mammals 307 

Mamanuas, the _. _ 349 

Maestre de Campo Bay, cape - . 176 

Manglar Island 126 

Manican Island ... 73 

Mani (peanut) . 256 

Manila 11,163 

Bay.. 157 

Ports and anchorage 163 

Capes and points 167 

capital _ . 48 

Churches... 49 

Commerce and industries 51 

Hemp 250 

Institutions of charity . . 50 

Products 51 



INDEX. 429 

Manila— Continued. Page. 

Public instruction 49 

Suburbs and towns of the province .. 50 

Ways of communication, Portland „ 51 

Manner of life, general (Moros of Sulu) _ 371 

Manobas, the _ ..... 368 

Maquiling and Tagaytay ranges . . _ 141 

Maquiling Volcano , _ 150 

Marapipi Island 105 

Marinduque Islands 73 

Hydrography.. , 170 

Mountains _ _ 142 

Points 173 

Ports and anchorage. _ 172 

Mariveles port 164 

Marine infantry, the 13 

Marurugao River _ 212 

Masbate and Tiaco, the islands of 75 

Area and inhabitants, towns 76 

Boundaries and general condition ... 75 

Languages, products, industries, and commerce 76 

Adjacent islands 76 

Mountains 142 

Hydrography — 

Bays 173 

Terrestrial, rivers T _ - 206 

Points, ports, and anchorage 174 

Masinloc Island _ 126 

Matutum Volcano.. - -- 151 

Mayon, the volcanic system of 147 

Meabe Spring 226 

Meara Island , 128 

Measurements adopted _ 5 

Medicinal plants - 273 

purposes, plants used for _. .-. 276 

Melastoma polyanthum Blum. ( Agusip) - 258 

MeliaceaB - 279 

Memorandum of mineral resources . . - 232 

Memorandum on geology 237 

Mesa Island 100 

Mestizo, Negritos of Albay -- 350 

Mestizos, European -- 343 

Method of obtaining pineapple fiber 252 

Metroxylon rumphii Mart. ( bagsang) 261 

Metroylon silvestre Mart, (lumbia) 261 

Military divisions and organization 11 

Mine" 1 arao and the adjoining islands --. --- 7,107 

Mindanao and Basilan, the islands of .- - 107 

The islands in general . 107 

Boundaries and area 107 

Number of inhabitants; languages — 107 

Towns, villages, and hamlets - 107 

Most important products of the island . - 107 

First district, or province of Zamboanga --. 108 

Boundaries and area.. ... ---- 108 

Number of inhabitants; languages - 109 

Towns, villages, and hamlets - - 109 

Second district, or province of Misamis 109 

Boundaries and area...- - 109 

Number of inhabitants; languages, - HO 

Towns, villages, and hamlets -. HO 

Third district, or province of Suriago • - - 111 

Boundaries and area .. . - 111 

Number of inhabitants; languages . — Ill 

Towns, villages, and hamlets.- -- 111 

Fourth district, of or province, Davao - --- J.W 

Boundaries and area 11^ 

Number of inhabitants; languages 11- 

Towns, villages, and hamlets - H* 



430 INDEX. 

Page. 
Mindanao and Basilan, the islands of— Continued. 

Fifth district, or province of Cottabato 113 

Boundaries and area 113 

Number of inhabitants; languages . _ 113 

Towns, villages, and hamlets 113 

Sixth district, or province of Basilan and adjacent islands _. 113 

Boundaries and area 113 

Number of inhabitants; languages 114 

Towns, villages, and hamlets __. 114 

Seventh district, or province of Lanao 114 

Boundaries and area _. 114 

Number of inhabitants; languages. . 114 

Towns, villages, and hamlets . 114 

Birds of 313 

Hydrography .. 186 

Bays 186,187 

East coast 388 

North, south, and west coasts 187 

Capes and points — 

North, south, and west coasts _ 191 

Ports and anchorages — 

East coast _ 191 

South and west coasts. _ . _ 189 

Adjoining islands- 
Bay, points, ports, and anchorages _ _ 192 

Islands adjacent to 115, 145, 186 

Mountain system 138 

Division into ranges ... 138 

Eastern and central eastern ranges 138 

Western and central western ranges . 139 

The higher mountains 140 

Monteses or Bugnidones of 392 

Natives of .. 337 

Rio Grande de Pulangui, the basin of the 211 

Rivers of 211 

Less important _ 215 

Mindoro and adjacent islands _ 71 

Area and inhabitants 71 

Boundaries and general conditions 71 

Languages, towns 71 

Products, industries, commerce, and ways of communication 71 

Hydrography: 

Bays and coves- 
North coast .. . . 169 

East, south, and west coasts 170 

Capes and points- 
North coast _ 172 

East, south, and west coasts _ 173 

Ports and anchorages — 

North coast 171 

East, south, and west coasts . 172 

Islands adjacent to 73 

Mountain system of ... 135 

Headof 185 

Northern, eastern, and western ranges 136 

Naujan, lake of. 20(5 

Hi vers ... ... 308 

Mineral resources and geology 329, ~ : > 1 

Minerals, memorandum on . 232 

Minero-medicinal waters 217 

Misamis, the province of (see Mindanao) 109 

Mohammedans, Malay ... 363 

Table 365 

Molluska 324 

More recent populators 335 

Mongo , 247 

Modern writing . . 404 

More important characteristics (Malay) 356 



INDEX. 431 

Page. 

Morong, the province or district, and the island of Talin. . 54 

Area and inhabitants _ _ . . 54 

Boundaries and general conditions . . 54 

Languages, towns . . 54 

Products, commerce, and ways of communication 54 

Moros, the ... 338 

Time of their arrival 338 

Character and customs of. 370 

Observations ... 370 

Costume 372 

Beliefs, superstitions, and religious hierarchy 372 

Political regime of the Moros of Sulu _ 370 

General manner of life 371 

Fleet ... 374 

Their establishment in this country 339 

Of the Gulf of Davao 365 

Rio Grande. Lanao Lake, and Illana Bay. . 364,374 

Salules-Laut 263 

Samales-Laut . . . - - 375 

Customs and religious observances 375 

Other tribes 365 

Table 365 

Most important mountains of Luzon 135 

Most widespread customs (Negritos) 389 

Morinda tinctoria Roxb. (bancuro). 258 

Morinda umbellata L. (Salicsican) 259 

Mountains and mountain svstems 129, 133 

Principal . - 133 

Mountains, ranges of the second and third order , 141 

Mountains of Luzon (see Luzon) 133 

Mindoro 136 

Mindanao 138 

Negros . - 136 

Panay , principal range of 136 

Secondary, of Luzon and adjacent islands — 

Babuyanes 142 

Batanes _. .- - 142 

Burias 112 

Calamianes ... ._ _. 143 

Catanduanes 143 

Maquiline.. 141 

Masbate --- 142 

Marinduque 142 

Polillo 142 

Tagaytay . — 141 

Tiaco -.-- - 142 

Zambales - 141 

Secondary, of the Visayan Islands -- 143 

Balabac ■.... - 146 

Basilan - - 145 

Biliran... - 143 

Bohol - 144 

Camiguin - -- 145 

Cebu :---• 144 

Dinagat - - --• J4o 

Guimaras - - -- 144 

Jolo -•- - ----- 145 

Leyte... 143 

Paragua. - - -«- f*» 

Romblon }44 

Samar - - J 43 

Siargo - - - -- J« 

Sibuyan - - --- j"*j 

Siquijor --- 144 

Tablas - *44 

TawiTawi . - JfJ 

Mountain system of Negros and Panay, in the Visayan Islands 13b 



432 INDEX. 

Paga 

MulagSpring 225 

Mulita River _ 212 

Musaceae 280 

Musa textilis K. (manila hemp) : _ 250 

Myristica fragrans Houtt. (nutmeg) 271 

Myrtaceae.. _. 279 

Nabugat Island . . _ _ 74 

Nacoda Island .__ 126 

Nanga Island , 77 

Naran j os Islands ... . _ 100 

Natives of Borneo.. ^ 341 

Mindanao _ 337 

ability of the 380 

Naval forces - 11 

Navy, general organization of the _ 11 

station, dependencies of the 12 

Nau j an , lake of _ - , 062 

Negritos, the... _. 333 

Comparison with Papuans _ 34? 

Divisions of the race _ 349 

Mamanuas 349 

Many other sorts 350 

Mestizos of Aibay 350 

Table of races _. 351 

General characteristics of _ 347 

Language of _ * 404 

Origin of _ 333 

Usages and customs of _ . . 389 

Most widespread 389 

of the Attas _ 390 

of the South Camarines 391 

of the island of Negros 392 

Their fortune in the archipelago and their present state 335 

Negros, the island of _ 90 

Area and inhabitants ... 90 

Boundaries and general conditions _ 90 

General appearance of the island 90 

Languages, products 90 

First district, western Negros 91 

Area, boundaries, towns, inhabitants 91 

General character of the country 91 

Second district, eastern Negros 91 

Area, boundaries 91 

Towns, inhabitants, adjacent islands 92 

Hydrography 178 

Bays and coves , 178 

Points, ports, and anchorage.. 179 

Mountain system ... _ 136 

Rivers... 209 

Negros, customs of the Negritos of the island of . 892 

New comandancias . __ 10 

Nicotianct tabacum, L. (tobacco) 267 

Nieotiana rustica L. , Paniculata h. 267 

Nipa (Nipa littoralis Bl. , N. fructificans Thunb. ) (sasa) _ 264 

Cultivation. ' . . .' 264 

Method of obtaining the tuba _ 265 

Nongalao Island . . 77 

Nonmetallic substances 236 

North Luzon 17 

North of Luzon and nearest islands 18 

North Ilocos. (See Ilocos.) 

Notable peaks, Panay ... 137 

Note (Igorrotte). 25 

Supplemental, on minerals 236 

On thermo-mineral springs . 221 

Noun, the structure of the 408 

Nucleus of system (mountains on Luzon) 133 



INDEX. 433 

Page. 

NuevaEcija the province of _._ 38 

Area and inhabitants, boundaries, conditions , . . 38 

Languages, towns . 39 

Products, industry, commerce, and ways of communication 39 

Nueva Viscaya (Bisaya) , the province of . 31 

Area and inhabitants ..... 31 

Boundaries and general conditions 31 

Languages, towns . . _ 32 

Products, industry, agriculture, commerce, and ways of communication. 32 

Number of inhabitants, table of _ . 8 

Observations in regard to _ 1 10 

Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt) _. 271 

Oanioan Island _ H6 

Observations 342,345,377,392,397,404,408 

In regard to the number of inhabitants _ 10 

On the character and customs of the Moros 370 

More honorable occupations _ , 383 

Official census . . . _ . .. 8 

Oil, plants from which oil is obtained 255 

Oils, essentials, essences 282 

Olanga Island _ _ _ _ 94 

Olatanga island 115 

Orejas de Liebre (Sangbois) Island... 118 

Organization, military 1 _ 11 

of the navy, general _ 11 

Origin of the Philippine peoples 333 

Negritos _ _ 333 

Indians, general - .. 336 

Other peoples _ 342 

Orthography adopted 5 

of the Philippine alphabet _ . 401 

Oryza sativa L. (palay or rice) _ _ 244 

Other tribes... _. .. 365 

Pagdilao Island. _ 61 

Palani Islands ...... 20 

Palay or rice ( Oryza sativa L. ) _ 244 

Paleographic table _ 399,401 

Pampanga, the province of (AD) _ _ 41 

Area and inhabitants 41 

Boundaries and general conditions, towns. „ 41 

Languages, products, industry, commerce, and ways of communica- 
tion _ 42 

Pampanga, basin of the Rio Grande de la , -. 203 

River Chicodela. 204 

Panaon Islands '. .„ 106 

Panaon Point 186 

Panay, the island of, and adjacent islands: 

Area and inhabitants . 83 

Boundaries and general conditions .'. 83 

Civil division of the island into provinces or districts 83 

Islands adjacent to 84 

Products ... 83 

Principal mountain range 136 

Character of its branches 137 

Most notable peaks 137 

Hydrography 176 

Less important _ 209 

Rivers ~~ - 207 

Pandan (Pandanus spiralis Bl. ) - 253 

Pan de Azucar Island. 84 

Pangahan or banga ( Caryota urens L. ) 262 

Pangantan Islands - 74 

Pangasinan, the province of: 

Area, inhabitants, boundaries, conditions - 37 

Languages, towns 37 

Products, industry, commerce, etc - 38 

P C— VOL 3—01 ±6 



434 INDEX. 

Page. 

Panglas Island _ 96 

Panglas Cove, points . . 182 

Panguil Lake .__._.. _ 216 

Panubigan Islands . _ 115 

Papuans, comparison with Negritos. 347 

Paragua, the island of: 

Boundaries and area, inhabitants . . _. 122 

Languages, towns, villages, and hamlets 123 

Hydrography... _ 193 

Bays and coves — 

West coast _ 194 

East coast 195 

Capes and points _ 196 

Ports and anchorage, east and west coast 196 

Mountains 146 

Most important products — 

East coast - 127 

West coast 125 

Ports, mountains, and rivers 123 

Parasan Island 101 

Estimate of population _ 10 

Particles _ _ 408 

Parturition, plants used in 275 

Pasig Island 60 

Pasig River „ _ 204 

Passages (see Seas) . 199 

Peanut (mani, Cacahuate, Arachus hypogcea L.) _ 256 

Peilon de Coron Island 78 

Peoples, origin of Philippine _ _ 333 

Origin of other 342 

Various cases of other _ 341 

Pepper (Piper nigrum L. ) 272 

Petroleum, Cebu 234 

Philippines, the army of the - 11 

Archipelago, situation and boundaries 7 

General geographical data with respect to particular islands 131 

Table of situation and area of principal islands 131 

Springs, general idea of 217 

Principal garden plants, etc 248 

List of fine woods ... 288 

Origin of peoples 333 

Characteristics of races _ _ 347 

Usages and customs of peoples _ 366 

Observations on civilized _ 377 

Character of the Indians of the 378 

Ability of the natives 380 

Usual and most fitting way of life 381 

More honorable occupations 383 

Various customs 383 

Conclusion .. 885 

Ancient alphabets of people , - . 397 

Orthography of the alphabet 401 

Relationship between "the languages - 404 

Pilas Island L18 

Pineapple (Bromida ananas L.. Ananas satira Lindley) 352 

J Hper a igrum L. (pepper) 272 

Piper betel L. (betel or itmus) 272 

Piper anisorum Bl. (buyo de anis) 272 

Pisces 822 

Plan of the work . ... ...... 11 

Plants producing dyes and starches 2 57 

Division A, dye plants - 257 

Agusip 258 

Bacuan 259 

Balanti 259 

Bancuro _ 258 

Cumalon 259 



INDEX. 435 

Plants producing dyes and starches— Continued. 
Division A, dye plants— Continued. 

Indigo Anil _ . _ _ 257 

Rattan (Sibucao) 258 

Safflower (Alazor) ~ 258 

Salicsican _ . 259 

Division B. plants producing starch 259 

Arrowroot . _ 260 

Bagsang _ 261 

Buri 260 

Cassava _ 260 

Cauong 261 

Lumbia or lumbay _ . 261 

Pangahan or bango 262 

Plants producing saccharine and alcoholic substances 263 

Saccharine plants — 

Sugarcane 263 

Sorghum _ 264 

Alcoholic plants __ 264 

Nipa or sasa.__ ._ 264 

Buri ...._ 266 

Cocoanut ._ 265 

Cauong 266 

Baizehan _... 266 

Pugalian . 266 

Aromatic _., _.. 267 

Betel or itmo _ 272 

Buyo de anis 272 

Chocolate 271 

Cinnamon 272 

Coffee . 269 

Nutmeg ... 271 

Pepper 272 

Tobacco... - ..- 267 

Medicinal _ 273 

Used for — 

Affections of the senses 274 

Circulatory apparatus 274 

Digestive apparatus . 273 

Diseases of the head 273 

skin 274 

Antidotes _. 275 

Febrifuges - 276 

Diuretics ....._ _ 276 

Used in parturition 275 

Used for various purposes 276 

Fiber -producing 250 

Garden 248 

From which oil is obtained 254 

Diseases of - - 254 

Uses of - --- 255 

Points. (Sec Capes.) 
Polillo: 

Town and inhabitants _ _ - - 45 

Mountains _ - - - 142 

Polillo and adjacent islands - 45 

Coves, points. -_ . 169 

Political regime of the Moros of Sulu _ 370 

Los Polios Islands . - 126 

Population, parochial estimate of _ - - 10 

More recent estimate of ,. - 335 

Ports and anchorages: 

Luzon, Manila Bay. 163 

West coast --- -- 163 

North and east coasts -- --- 165 

South and southwest coasts -- 166 

Babuyanes, Catanduanes - 169 



436 INDEX. 

Ports and anchorages— Continued. Page. 
Mindoro — 

North coast.. 171 

East, south, and west coasts 172 

Marinduque, Ylin, Semerara, Calamianes 172 

Burias, Masbate, Tiaco - 174 

Romblon, Tablas _.. 175 

Maestre de Campo _ -. 176 

Panay, north, east, and west coasts.. 177 

Guimaras _ - . 177 

Negros, north, east, and south coasts _ 179 

Cebu— 

East coast 180 

West coast - 181 

Bohol 182 

Leyte, east, north, and west coasts _ 185 

Biliran 185 

Mindanao and adjacent islands - . . . 186 

Mindanao ... 188 

West and south coasts _ 189 

East coast ... .... 191 

Adjoining islands . _ .. _ _ . 192 

Jolo. 194 

Paragua, west and east coasts _ . _ 196 

Balabac 197 

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) 247 

Potatoes, sweet {Ipomea batatas Lamk. ) 247 

Practices, beliefs, superstitions, and religious hierarchy of the Moros of 

Sulu.. .. 372 

Preliminary considerations (ethnology) .... 344 

Primary languages _ ..... 405 

Relation between these and Malay _ 405 

Primitive writing . _ 397 

Principal islands of the group, Romblon 175 

Mountain systems _. .__.. 133 

Range of Panay __ 136 

Principe, comandancia of: 

Area and inhabitants, towns, languages. 33 

Boundaries, conditions, products, etc. 33 

Prologue 5, 155 

Properties, therapeutic, of certain springs. 223 

Protozoa, etc . . 326 

Province or district of — 

Abra. 25 

Albay ... 63 

Ambos Camarines _ 61 

Antique ... _ 85 

Basilan 113 

Batangas _ 57 

Cagayan 19 

Capiz 86 

Catanduanes. the island of 65 

Cavite . 51 

Concepcion _ 89 

Corregidor _ _ 52 

Cottabato 113 

Davos 112 

Iloilo 87 

Isabela 27 

La Laguna 55 

Lanao .. ._ 114 

Manila. 48 

Misamis 109 

Morong , 54 

Nueva Ecija 38 

Nueva Viscaya 31 

Panipanga 41 



INDEX. 437 

Province or district of —Continued. Page. 

Pangasinan 37 

Sorsogon _■„ qq 

Surigao. m 

Tarlac _ 40 

Tayabas . 59 

Union __ _. _ 30 

Zambales __. 35 

Zamboanga. _ 108 

Public instruction, Manila ._ _ 49 

Pujaga island 116 

Pulo Caballo _ _ 53, 54 

Quensitog Spring. . 225 

Quiangan, comandancia of 11.29 

Quidabun group __ 115 

Quicksilver ... 236 

Race, table of Negrito _ 35 

Races, intermarriage of - _ 340 

Ramie (Boehmeria nivea) - i ._ 252 

Ranges. (See Mountains. ) 
Ranges of Panay. (See Panay.) 

Rapurapu Island 64 

Rasa (Kataguin) Island _. 127 

Rattan (bejuco) _ 253 

Rattan (sibucao) (Caesalpina sappanli.) _ 258 

Registry, parochial 5 

Remarks (seas, channels, etc. ).._ -....- 198 

Reptiles and Batrachians _ ._ _. 317 

Resins.., . 282 

G-ums and ._ _ 283 

Resources, mineral . _ 281 

Memorandum on ._ _ . 282 

Rhizophora tinctoria L. (bacuan) 259 

Rice or palay (Oriza sativa L.) 244 

Ricino (Ricinus communis L.) (castor oil) 206 

Rio Grande, Moros of the _ 364,314 

Rio Grande de la Pampanga, basin of the _ _. 203 

Rio Vasey 102 

Rita Island. _ _ 126 

Rivers: 

Basin of Grande de Cagayan „ __ 201 

Affluents of 202 

Magat, Bangag, Siffu_. 202 

Agno Grande, basin of _.. 202 

Tributaries of 203 

Abra, basin _. , -. 203 

Tributaries of 203 

Rio Grande de la Pampanga _ _ . 203 

Chico de la Pampanga 204 

Other tributaries - - 204 

Cauit, Pasig, Bicol, and Imus :-... 204,205 

Minor rivers of. . - 205 

Mindoro, Masbate _ - ... 206 

Catanduanes, Polillo, Bisayas, Panay, Jalur. 207 

Aclan, Salus. Ibajay , Sibalon - 208 

Less important, Panav - 209 

Cebu, Negros. ..." 209 

Samar, Leyte - 210 

Bohol, Sibuyan .. - 211 

Mindanao: 

Rio Grande (Pulangui) , basin of the 211 

Sauga, Malupali, Marurugao, Mulita 212 

Tigua, Culamen, Cabacan 213 

Agusan, the basin of the . . . -... 213 

Simulao, Gibon, Ihanan, Humayan 214 

Arganan, Ujut, Tagaloan, Cagayan 215 

Less important 215 



438 INDEX. 

Page. 
Romblon, islands of, and Panay: 

Area, islands, towns 80 

Boundaries and general conditions 80 

Languages, products _ 82 

Hydrography 175 

Mountains _ _ 144 

Roots _ _ 248 

Rutaceae _ 280 

Saccharum Koenigii Retz (cogon) _ 246, 264 

Saccharine plants _. ._ .. ._ 263 

Saccharum officinarum L. (see Sugar cane) _ 263 

Sacol Island* 117 

Samo wer or alazor ( Carthamnus tinctorius L. ) ... 258 

Sagarayan Island. . . _ . 115 

Sajotan, caves of _ _ 102 

Salus River 208 

Salvadora Spring. _. 226 

Salicsican (Morinda umbellata L. ) and others 259 

Salomague - 24 

Saltan _'_ 28 

Samales, the _ . . 370 

Samales-Laut . — 375 

Customs and religious observances 375 

Samar, Leyte, and the adjacent islands ._._ 98 

Samar — 

Area and inhabitants, towns . . 98 

Boundaries and general condition 98 

Products 99 

Adjacent islands — 

North coast . . 99 

West coast 100 

East and south coasts 102 

North coast 103 

Hydrography — 

Bays 182 

Capes 183 

Mountains ... 143 

Rivers ., 210 

Sambabuas Island . . 105 

Sanitary department of the Navy 12 

San Miguel Island 65 

San Miguel Bay 158 

San Janico, Strait of _ 101 

San Pedro,Bayof .. 102 

San Pablo, Bay of. 102 

Sangbois (Orejas de Liebre) Island ._ 118 

Sanaga River ■__. _ 212 

San Raimundo Spring... 223 

San Mariano Spring 224 

Sapotaceae 280 

Sarangani Island 115 

Sarangani Volcano . 151 

Sasa (see Nipa) ... 865 

Seas, channels, straits, passages, and silangas. % 198 

Remarks on _ 198 

Semerara Island 74 

Hydrography.. 171 

Ports and anchorage 1 72 

Capes . . . 1 73 

Senses, plants used for affections of 274 

Sentences, comparative table of 409 

( 'onstruction of . 409 

Sequijor Island. 97 

Besama (Sesamum orientate L.) (benne seed) 255 

Shipbuilding, woods for 301 

Short account of the Monteses or Buguidnones of Mindanao .... 392 

Siargao Island. . . 117 



index. 439 

Page. 

Siargao, mountains of ,. 145 

Sibbu (Siffu) River 202 

Sibolon Island 74 

Sibolon River _ 208 

Sibay Island. •_ _ 74 

Sibuyan Island _ 82 

Bays 175 

Capes 176 

Mountains __ 144 

Rivers . 211 

Sibucao (rattan) _ .... _. _. 258 

Siete Pecados Island 84 

Sierra Madre _ _ _ 134 

Siffu. (See Sibbu.) 

Siniilon Island 117 

Simulao Island _ 214 

Single Alphabet .._ _ 399 

Sinonog Island 118 

Situation and boundaries of the Philippine Archipelago 7 

Sequijos Island 97 

Cove 382 

Mountains 144 

Points 182 

Skin, plants used for diseases of the 274 

Solatium tuberosum L. (potato) _._ 247 

Sorts of Negritos, many other . 350 

Sorghum (Sorghum saccharum Retz) (Saccharum koenigii Retz) 264 

of Batad .._' 246 

Sorsogon, the Province of: 

Area and inhabitants, towns . _ _. 66 

Boundaries and general conditions . . 66 

Languages, products, industry, commerce, and ways of communication. 67 

Adjacent islands . -.'„._. 67 

South Camarines, the Negritos of _ _ 391 

Ilocos 22 

.Luzon provinces (A) (B) _ _ _ . 17,18 

Spring, Asin... _ 226 

Binobresan ._ 226 

Bolaboran , 226 

Cabad 225 

Candaguit... 224 

Casipitan _ _ 224 

Cotabato 226 

Cauan ._ 227 

Gaspas... _. -. 224 

Lanot 223 

Meabe „ 226 

Mainit 224 

Mulag _ 225 

Salvadora - 226 

San Raimundo 223 

San Mariano _. - 224 

Quensitog _ 225 

Tagbag .._ 225 

Tanon. 225 

Springs, existence of 217 

Examinations made of - 217 

General idea of Philippine - - -. 217 

Not yet analyzed, table of 225 

Analyzed, table of - --- 218 

Therapeutic properties of certain - . -- 223 

Starches, plants producing dyes and _ 257 

Station, command of naval , - - 

dependencies of naval - 12 

Strawberry - 249 

Strait of San Juanica _ - • 1°1 



440 INDEX. 

Page. 

Straits - 199 

Structure of the noun .. . _ 408 

Grammatical 408 

Subig 12 

Sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum L. ) _ 263 

Cultivation 263 

Suluan or Buena Serial Island ■_ 116 

Sulu, Moros of 363 

Language of, table . 411 

Sulphated, calcic, chlorated, and sodic waters 227 

Sumilon Island, the west coast 97 

Supplemental note (numerals) 236 

Superstitions, etc. (Moros of Sulu) 370, 372 

Surigao, the province of (see Mindanao) _ _ .. 111 

Sweet potato (Ipomea batatas Lamk. ) . _ 247 

System of mountain ranges. (See Mountains.) 

Taal, volcano system of 147 

Crater Lake, composition of water 222 

Tablas, island of - 81 

Capes 176 

Bays -. 175 

Mountains 144 

Ports... 176 

Table, comparison of language with Malay 416 

ethnological ... . _ 355 

more important woods, according to power of resistance _ 303 

elasticity 302 

weight 302 

of mineral -bearing islands . 282 

Malay and Negritos . 359 

Malay, Chinese, and Mohammedans 365 

Negrito races _ 351 

springs analyzed. ._ 218 

springs not yet analyzed _ _, 220 

Tiruray and Sulu-Moros _ _ 411 

paleographic 399,401 

sentences, comparative 409 

words, comparative .. 406 

Tables, geographical situation _ ,. 8.9 

Tabulla Island . ._ 101 

Tagalogs, characteristics of ... 360 

Tagapula Island _ _ 100 

Tagaytay and Maquiling ranges 141 

Taybog spring _ 225 

Tagalog writing, reform of . . .. 402 

Taj oloan River. 215 

Talicut or Tuisoc Island 116 

Talim, the island of _. 55 

Tamic Island .... 118 

Tanabaay Island 101 

Tanaban Island 101 

Tanabon Island 101 

Tangad Libucan 100 

Tanatabas, ('anal de 101 

Tanon Spring .. 205 

Tapcantana Island 118 

Tapintan Island 126 

TapulBay 196 

Tarlac, the province of: 

Area and inhabitants, towns - 40 

I Joundaries and general conditions 40 

Languages, products, industry, commerce, and ways of communication. . 41 

Tawi Tawi Mountains . _. 145 

bays. 193 

ports . 194 



INDEX. 441 

Page. 

Tayabas, the province of: 

Area and inhabitants, towns ._____.. 59 

Boundaries and general conditions _ _ _ ~ ~ L _ 59 

Adjacent islands, languages. . .. 60 

Products, industry, commerce, and ways of communication ~~ 60 

Teinga Island _ _ . 118 

Terrestrial hydrography 201 

Theobroma cacao L. (chocolate) . _ . 271 

Theory, ethnographic.-. ... ... 343 

Thermo-mineral springs, note on 221 

Tiaco Island. (See Masba e.) 

Tiagan, comadancia de 24 

products 25 

Tibinil Island _______ 95 

Ticala Island _ . _ •_ . 115 

Ticlin Island . _ _ 100 

Ticlines group 100 

Tictiran Island . _ 117 

Tigua River _ _ _ ... 213 

Timaco Islands ... ... . 115 

Timarru (mammal ) 310 

Timber and line woods ... 285, 287 

Time of their arrival (Moros) 338 

Tiruray language, table 411 

Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.): 

Species and varieties 267 

Cultivation. 268 

Chemical composition 269 

Diseases I 269 

Tondo 50 

Tres Picos Island 126 

Tribes, other (Moros). _ _ ... .. 265 

Trees, fruit ... 278 

Anacardiacese 278 

Anonaceee . . . . _ . ._...._ 278 

Ates (Anona squamoso Li.) ... ._ 278 

Ebenacea? . _ _ - - - 278 

Geranicese 279 

Guttiferte . — . 279 

Meliacese 279 

Myrtacese 279 

Caricacea? - - . 280 

Musaceje _ 280 

Rutace* _ 280 

Sapotacea? _ . 280 

Urticacea? . --- 281 

Various other wild species ... 281 

Tuaclsland .. 100 

Tubers 247 

Tuluban Island -..__ 126 

Tnmalutan Island 118 

Tuqui.Ube 248 

Ube.Tuqui 248 

UjutRiver. 215 

Union, the province of: 

Area and inhabitants, towns, languages 30 

Boundaries and general conditions ... _ . _ _ _ 30 

Products, agriculture, industry, commerce . . . 30 

Unip group 11? 

Urticacese -- ^°l 

Usages and customs of the Indonesian 1 ribes 39~- 

Negritos found in Philippines . _ . 389 

Uses of plants from which oil is obtained ... . _ _ 255 

more important woods . _ . 301 

Uson Island - - £8 

Usual and most fitting way of life - 381 

p c— vol 3—01 47 



442 INDEX. 

Page 

Various cases of other peoples . . - . _ 341 

customs - _ _ 383 

ethnological conditions , 344 

medicinal purposes, plants used for . . 276 

vegetable products . 292 

wild species (fruit trees) _ 281 

Vaschi Islands _ _ , 70 

Vasey River 102 

Vegetables.. 247 

Division of — 

(A) legumes, (B) tubers .. ._..._ 247 

(C) roots, (D) garden plants ._. 248 

Various products. 282 

Vegetable wax 284 

Verb, the form of the 409 

Verdes Islands _ . - 128 

Verina (see Tobacco) . _ _ 267 

Vermes, etc ... _. . ..__. . 326 

Viscaya, Nueva 11, 31 

Visayans (characteristics. Bisaya) 361 

Visayas (A) 80 

Visayas (B) 90 

Visayas (C) .. 98 

Visayas Mountains . .... .... 143 

hydrography (Bisaya) 175 

terrestrial _'. 207 

Volcanic systems 147 

Taal.Mayon . . .. ... .. 147 

Influence on land formation in the Philippines . 147 

Theory of unity of . 148 

Volcanoes 147 

Active— 

Mayon,Taal 148 

Babuyan, Bacon. Bulucan. Didica 149 

Camiguin de Babuyanes 149 

Canlaon or Malaspina ...... ..... .. 149 

Camiguin del Sur ...... 149 

Apo, Macaturin 150 

Extinct — 

Arayat, Caua, Maquiling . 150 

Banahao, Isarog, Acudining, Magaso , . . 151 

Diduata, Calayo. Matutum ... 151 

Butulan, Sarangani . . . . . .. . .. 151 

Number and divisions of Philippine. 148 

Water buffalo _. 309 

Waters, minero-medicinal .. . ... ... . . 217 

Acidulated, carbonic, ferruginous, and bicarbonated 338 

Alkaline-bicarbonated . 228 

Chlorated, sodic-calcic 226 

Chlorated, sodic, bicarbonat'd. and calcic 226 

Sulphurated, cilcic. chlorated, and sodic _ 227 

Way of life, usual and most fitting : '» s 1 

Western Negros. ... 91 

Woods, list of Philippine - ss 

timber and lino .... . 285,287 

table of more important, according to weight 802 

elasticity 302 

power of resistance . 308 

uses of more important, for — 

Box making 302 

( labinetwork, canoes 301 

House building, shipbuilding.. .. _ 301 

Writing, modern . .. 404 

primitive .. ... .. 397 

reform of Tagalog -103 

is formed, direction in which ... 403 



INDEX. 443 

Page. 
Ylin islands: 

Port __ 172 

Capes . . . 173 

Yucca, Cassava, Camoting cahoy (Jatropha manihot L. ) 260 

Zacate (grass) 246 

Zambales. the province of: 

Area and inhabitants ... 35 

Boundaries and general conditions 35 

Languages, towns — - . - 35 

Adjacent islands . _ ._. 36 

Products, industry, and ways of communication 36 

Mountain ranges ....._ 141 

Zamboanga (see Mindanao) 108 

Zea mays L. (Indian corn) 245, 266 

Zoography 305,307 



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